The problem of personality is one of the most pressing topics in modern psychology. This term is characterized by some features, it is worth noting that they do not include genetic or physiological aspects. In addition, the features do not include the psychological and individual person. Rather, they include social deep features that testify to the direction of human life, reflect the nature of man as the author of his life. So, what is a personality - many people ask this question, so you should consider the basic definitions.

In a broad sense, personality is such a substance that internally distinguishes one person from another.

There are three different definitions that describe the concept of personality.
1. The concept is interpreted as the individuality of a person, which indicates his life experience, values, aspirations, abilities, spiritual development and temperament. If we consider such an understanding in more detail, then we can say that a person, an animal has it, since each animal has its own individual characteristics and character.
2. With an intermediate understanding - the concept of personality - is the subject of society, which has a social and personal role. This definition of the concept of personality belongs to Adler and begins with social feeling. After all, finding and feeling great is not an easy task, if a person successfully copes with it, then it develops into something higher. That is, in this concept, such a person is a subject that interacts with other people at the level of habits.
3. Narrow understanding: a person is a subject of culture, a self. He is defined as a person who is the author of his own life. That is, the child is not such, but may or may not become one.
The definition of such a concept as a person can be anything. However, all definitions have a common meaning.

Personality problems in the psychological aspect

If the concept of an individual is accompanied by the general qualities of homo sapiens, then the concept of personality has a close and inextricable connection with the concept of individuality, that is, with social qualities, with a person’s attitude to the world, with his abilities. A person can be characterized by the level of his consciousness, by the degree of correlation of his own consciousness with the consciousness of society. The ability of a person to social relations is manifested. The main points that characterize the concept under consideration include the following:

• Attitude towards society;
• Attitude towards individuals from society;
• Attitude towards oneself;
• Attitude to own work responsibilities.

According to these criteria, it is possible to explain what a person is. Also, the main characteristic is the level of awareness of relationships and the degree of their stability. In the concept of personality, an important role is played by its position, as well as the ability to implement relationships, which depends on how developed the creative abilities of a person, his knowledge and skills. After all, no person is born with ready-made abilities or qualities, they are formed throughout life. The hereditary component does not determine the level of development, it is only responsible for the physiological abilities of the individual, the quality of the nervous system. But the biological organization of man contains his natural capabilities associated with mental development. A person becomes a person only thanks to social heredity, the experience of other generations, which are fixed in knowledge, traditions, cultural objects. The problem of personality lies in numerous points that are basic for

The formation of personality

The formation of human nature occurs under strictly defined conditions. The requirements of society often determine the model. And what actually acts as natural characteristics of the essence of man is actually represented by the consolidation of social requirements for behavior. Below we will consider what stages a person goes through in the process of becoming.
The main driving force is the internal contradictions that arise between constantly growing needs and the possibility of satisfying them. An entity that is formed under normal conditions constantly grows and develops its capabilities, while forming new needs. The main problem of personality is considered in psychology and philosophy and includes its definition as such.

How to determine the level of personality development

The level at which the problem of the personality is located, its development, can be determined by its relations. As a rule, undeveloped persons are limited to mercantile interests. If it is highly developed, then this indicates that relations of social significance predominate in it, and there are also numerous abilities of the individual both for social relations, and also for. Each individual throughout his life is engaged in solving rather complex problems, and the essence is largely manifested in the way he solves these very problems. After all, each person solves difficulties in different ways.
To understand an individual means to understand what life values ​​are his priorities, what principles he is guided by when solving problems. The problem of personality lies in self-awareness and in self-improvement, which must be continuous.

Types

There are several main personality types:

• Socialized - which are adapted to the conditions of social life.
• Desocialized - who deviate from the requirements of society. These include marginalized individuals. The problem of personality in this case lies in the rejection by society.
• Mentally abnormal - these are persons who have some delays in mental development, psychopaths. Here the problem of personality is that people try to avoid such faces.

A socialized normal entity has a number of features. It has autonomy, the assertion of its own individuality. If critical situations arise, the socialized nature retains its strategy, does not change its life principles and positions. If extreme situations and psychological breakdowns arise, such a nature can prevent the consequences through a reassessment of values. The concept of such a person involves maintaining the optimal mood in any situation.

If an individual is mentally balanced, then he builds benevolent relations with other people, is altruistic in relation to their needs. When building life plans, a normal nature proceeds from reality, has a sense of honor and justice. She is persistent about achieving goals and can easily correct her own behavior. The sources of success or failure for her are herself, and not external circumstances.

If difficult situations arise, a well-developed individual is able to take responsibility and risk justifiably.
So, the human essence is that which has the consciousness of its own isolation, which allows it to be free from the dictates of power, to remain calm under any conditions. Such abilities of the individual make it and contribute to further development.
The core is spirituality, which is represented by the highest manifestation of human essence, commitment to morality.

Structure

The structure consists of a number of elements - the abilities of the individual, among which the following can be distinguished:

• Self-awareness. That is, she is aware of any actions, considers only herself the source of her life. Self-consciousness is aimed at the consciousness of one's own self, and next to this concept is self-improvement, which also plays an important role in the formation of human essence.
• Orientation characterizes its features of character, goals, directions for achieving them. Orientation is the most important element and characterizes social and spiritual development. Orientation is a leading element in the structure, and also allows you to get an idea of ​​​​the personality as a whole.
• Temperament and character. These qualities are formed under the influence of public opinion, and are also transmitted genetically. Temperament refers to certain properties of the psyche, which act as a foundation for formation. Such qualities are equally manifested in any human activity, since they are basic.
• Mental processes and states. They can be passed on genetically, but are usually formed throughout life.
• The abilities of the individual, as well as his inclinations, must develop continuously, it is thanks to their development that growth is maintained. The abilities of any person are acquired and are formed depending on a number of factors.
• Psychic experience. This fragment is also very important in the formation of the entity.

So, the structure is quite extensive, unique, each link must be fully implemented.
The concept of personality is quite extensive and versatile, it is characterized by such factors as temperament, behavior, abilities, mental health. The problem of personality lies in the main points of its formation, which are associated with behavior, development, skills and abilities. Human nature is diversified and special, and the main task is to create the most comfortable conditions for further development.

Personality is a concept developed to reflect the social nature of a person, considering him as a subject of sociocultural life, defining him as a carrier of an individual principle, self-revealing in the contexts of social relations, communication and objective activity. By "personality" is meant:

• 1) the human individual as a subject of relations and conscious activity (“face” - in the broad sense of the word);
• 2) a stable system of socially significant features that characterize an individual as a member of a particular society or community. Although these two concepts are the person as the integrity of a person (Latin: persona) and the personality as his social and psychological appearance (Latin: personalitas).

Terminologically, these concepts are quite distinct, but sometimes they are used as synonyms.

Now consider the relationship between the concepts of personality and power. Each of us is a person (both in the broad and narrow sense of the word) and each of us has a certain power. But most of us just don't know how to use it to the fullest. Some will object to this statement - "no, I'm too small a fry and I don't have power, because nothing depends on me." This is not true. Everyone has power, but power is always limited - by your capabilities and specific circumstances. I'll try to explain.

From the point of view of the author, everyone, even the most seemingly “insignificant person”, has power. A lot depends on him! Moreover, it does not matter what his social status is (what position he holds, what income he has, how well known).

The main thing is that his internal status should be high enough! If such a person strives with all his might for self-realization, then he, one way or another, will raise his external status to the level of his internal status! And it doesn't really matter where he is at the moment. Even if this person is a prisoner in a strict regime colony, his desire to increase his status with a reasonable approach will always work. Of course, at the same time, you must always remember that no power is unlimited, including your power - it is always limited! In order to increase your external status, you must follow certain rules. These rules are:

• 1) Observe the correct posture - the back is straight, the shoulders are straightened, the stoop should be excluded. A stoop, a hunched back, and shoulders pushed forward are signs of a person who has a secondary status. Sometimes, of course, this is due to a disease or other reasons, but let such a “hunched” posture never become your usual!
• 2) In any situation, do not fuss, and remain calm. Fuss and nervousness are signs of a person who has a secondary status. Even if you need to act quickly - try to build your movements in the most rational way, move along the optimal trajectory.
• 3) If possible, wear only business and classic suits. The best option is a two-piece suit and a tie. If this is not possible, then at least avoid wearing baggy clothing that resembles a worker's overalls or a prisoner's overalls. Remember, jeans, denim jackets and baggy sweaters (regardless of their cost) are the clothes of peasants, workers and other individuals secondary to the social structure of society.

A business suit, dark trousers with an arrow (regardless of their cost) are a sign of a person's high status. The color of clothing should also be chosen wisely (red is the color of aggression, excitement; black is the color of psychological pressure, protest, refusal; gray is the color of disguise, detachment; green is the color of nature, optimism; brown is the color of weakness, a painful state, etc. ).

• 4) The concepts of GOOD and EVIL are always relative (subjective) and should be interpreted by you only in this way: Good is something that benefits you, expands your capabilities, helps you develop. Evil is something that harms you, narrows your possibilities, hinders your development.
• 5) The concepts of TRUE and FALSE are always relative (subjective) and should be interpreted by you only in this way: Truth is everything that you personally affirm. Lies are anything that contradicts your claims.
• 6) The concepts of ENEMY and FRIEND are always relative (subjective) and should be interpreted by you only this way: The enemy is the one whose interests are contrary to your interests and the one who deliberately causes you significant damage. A friend is someone whose interests are the same as yours, and someone who consciously helps you. Both of these categories are not permanent and those who fall into them can change places at any moment. The exception is when such a replacement will cause damage to your psyche. Follow from the principle that was expressed by one of the British politicians (presumably Lord Palmerston): "Britain has no permanent enemies and permanent friends, it has only interests." Always proceed from your interests, but do not show it to others! Learn "politics" from Niccolo Machiavelli.

Even persons occupying a seemingly rather low status in society have a certain power and are quite capable of exercising it! For example:

factory worker , a plant, an organization - performing its labor functions, using the rights granted to it, and professional skills, it may well sabotage the production process, or vice versa - contribute to its optimization. With a strong desire, he can plan and create a situation in which his leader will have serious problems, and at the same time look like an “honest worker”, avoiding negative consequences for himself personally. Of course, in this case, the application of significant mental and volitional efforts is necessary (which not every worker is capable of).

The power level of a worker can change depending on the situation, place and time. For example, during a “strike”, an ordinary worker may well become a leader and focus the anger and indignation of the others in the direction he needs (I recommend watching the feature film “Fist”). In addition, a worker can use in his own interests the existing labor (Labor Code of the Russian Federation) or other legislation in the country. power manipulation state

It should be remembered that government officials really do not like private companies, considering them “subordinate structures” and always try to suppress their independence by looking for violations of the law (various state norms and rules) in their activities and are happy to apply various sanctions and fines. In addition, government officials of different services feel hostility towards each other (often this is due to competition) and this can be taken advantage of by allowing them, with the help of your complaint (statement), to get even with the enemy (for example, contact the prosecutor's office with a complaint against the police, or apply to the state labor inspectorate with a complaint against the employer - a state-owned enterprise). Of course, for this, the worker should not “sit idly by” - you will have to fuss and study the relevant section of the law (for example, several articles of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation) or contact a lawyer for advice.

University student - also has a certain power over other students, teachers and even the rector. Of course, this power is limited and can only arise as a result of intelligent and well-planned actions. For example, a psychological technique aimed at successfully passing exams and tests is carried out in the form of using a stereotype common among teachers - Stereotype(from ancient Greek ufeset - solid, spatial and farpt - "imprint"). Initially "stereotype"- a metaphor for thinking that came from typography, where a stereotype is a monolithic printing plate, a copy from a typographic set or a cliché used for rotary printing of large-circulation publications. In modern social theory and psychology, there are various definitions of the concept "Stereotype", depending on the methodological direction of the scientific school. In general, stereotype- a well-established attitude to ongoing events, developed on the basis of comparing them with inner ideals. The system of stereotypes is understanding of the world. about "bad" and "good" students.

To use this technique, you need to strain and get an “A” in all the main subjects in the first year (here a lot depends on the level of the student’s intelligence - it will be easier for someone, more difficult for someone). As a rule, when coming to the exam, before the answer, the student gives the teacher a "record book".

Make sure that the "record book" always opens not immediately on a blank page, but first on those pages where there are "fives" (for example, lightly glue the corners of clean pages with glue, then the pages on the "fives" will open easily, but on clean ones - "to stick").

The teacher, whether he wants it or not, will fall under your psychological influence and, at the subconscious level, will evaluate you as a “good student”. Even if your answer is “not very”, he will show “understanding” (well, he “overstrained” during preparation, he still earned “five” in other subjects) or generally skip most of your answer “by the ears” and put a good assessment. This trick works 95% of the time. One more take. If you know that your teacher is engaged in scientific work - writes articles, books, textbooks - do not be lazy, get these materials and run through them with your eyes, remembering a few small quotes. At the first opportunity, "amuse the vanity" of the author by asking him a couple of questions about the text of these materials.

At the same time, one can speak with respect about the opinion of the author and agree with some thesis (But remember! Do not “go too far”! In no case do not go over to primitive flattery!). Rest assured, on the exam, this will count towards you at least + one point when you receive an assessment. How to influence other students? First, they must be interested in you. Communicate with other students and then you will learn about their interests and desires. If they need you, then consider that you have a direct "lever" to influence them.

The main thing is to always demonstrate external friendliness and friendliness. But keep your dignity and, in any case, do not "fawn" with anyone. Having competently built a stepwise influence with the help of linguistic programming, you can control the behavior of other students and at the same time look like a “friend”, “good guy” (“good girl”). How to influence the rector?

The advice is simple - “shine” in front of him more often in the role of an “activist” and a “good student”. The rector, as a rule, does not remember the names and surnames of students, but if you become familiar, then he (she) will definitely remember your face.

If possible, help the work of the dean's office. Whenever possible, communicate with the rector with an air of self-confidence, but at the same time showing respect. What is the need for “contact” with the rector? It may well come in handy, for example, in some universities the rector is present at state exams, and may well “put in a good word” for you. The word of the rector may be required in case of your reinstatement at the university after an academic leave, when retaking an exam, etc.

In exceptional cases, you can go for "tough tricks", for example, competently "substitute" an objectionable teacher or even a rector by convicting you of a bribe. To do this, you need to contact the prosecutor's office or the police (after weighing what results this will lead to). This is an exceptional case, but this one can come in handy. If you are afraid of “revenge”, then know that all kinds of employees of educational institutions and other organizations are themselves afraid of “inconvenient” and “problematic” people, and after the “initiation of a criminal case” against their colleague, they themselves will be especially careful. In addition, the decision of the examination committee can always be appealed, and in exceptional cases - transferred to another university. So, even in the event of a serious conflict with the leadership or teaching staff of the university, not everything is so terrible.

office worker (sales manager, personnel manager, office manager, secretary, etc.) - has considerable power, expressed in a whole range of possible influences on other employees of the organization. You can develop and implement intrigue and "set up" those employees who, in your opinion, deserve it. Naturally, everything should look like that you are “white and fluffy” and the one you set up is “complete mediocrity and a slacker”!

It is very important never to speak badly about someone directly! If you want to expose the "opponent" as a scoundrel, then you need to make sure that he (she) takes the main steps towards this. You should only slightly push and direct him (her) in the right direction.

Nervousness, tantrums, rude speech, neglect of official duties - should become attributes of your "opponent", but not yours. So never "break down" and always be cool! In a conversation with the “opponent”, show your confidence and smile slightly (for specific methods of psychological influence, see the section “Achieving power through manipulation”).

In a conversation with the “management” about an employee you don’t like, never go over to his (her) personal qualities! Speak only about the professionalism of the employee, and, as it were, neutrally, not interested, but do not overdo it!

During a conversation with the “bosses”, make a slightly worried look, they say, you are not happy that things are not going very well, but at the same time you are not interested in removing the “opponent” from the position (project) - say something like: “In principle he is a good guy (reasonable woman), and he seems to be trying, but what can you do, well, it’s not given to him (her) to lead this department (to do this work, to carry out this project).

According to his professional and psychological qualities, he (she) is more suitable for other work, less intense, with less workload. Recently, it has become a common practice among sales managers to take “their clients” with them when they leave.

Treat such behavior reasonably - that is, not in all cases it promises great benefits. If you have come into conflict with the head of a firna (company) and you do not have any friendly employees in this organization, then “taking your clients away” makes sense and is even necessary, because you are unlikely to return or maintain any contacts with employees. If there are still nice and loyal people in the company, then think about how to establish private relations with them and use them as your “agents”. One way to establish a good relationship is to refer them to "your clients" or otherwise help in the work. In this case, you will look “positive” both for the company and for “your person” - after all, you did not take away the client, and at the same time helped your colleague.

If you decide to “sever all ties” with the firm (company) and nothing keeps you from revenge (for example, the employer tried to “throw” you on a salary, and you are very annoyed by this), then feel free to take “your clients” and create a company additional difficulties - complain to the State Labor Inspectorate, file a lawsuit, etc. Caution should be exercised only if you work in a rather specific (narrow) field in which information about employees quickly reaches different employers. That is, if other employers know that you have “thrown” any company, then they will treat you with fear and may even refuse to hire you.

State employee - can use the same range of possible influences on other employees of the organization (body) as an office employee of a private company. Moreover, the ability to use the “state power resource”, that is, the power of state coercion, which he possesses to one degree or another, depending on the position he holds, is added to his capabilities. As you understand, even the smallest state official is a person on whom something always depends.

For example, a lot depends on how some rank of some “inspectorate”, when applying to him for some kind of “permission”, will look at the observance by the applicant of the rules established by the state. Will this “rank” be overly pedantic and picky, or will it look at a minor violation “through the fingers”, will it interpret a minor inaccuracy “against” or “in favor” of the person addressing it.

In fact, the particular examples of the exercise of power that we have considered relate to methods of manipulating people, so we will consider the topic of “manipulation” in more detail.

federal state

budget educational institution

higher professional education

"Pskov State University"

Test

discipline: "Political Science".

On the topic: "Man in the system of political relations."

Performed:

2nd year student

correspondence department

group No. 1012-04

Sverchkova V.S.

Lecturer: Shchennikov A.A.

Introduction.

1. Types of personality, depending on the degree of participation in political life…………………………………........................... ................................................four

1.2.Political roles: types……………………………………………………………………………..5-6

1.3. Functions of a political leader. Types of political leaders. Political participation.………………………………...………………………….7-9

1.4.Political culture………………………………………………………..10-12

2. Political activity……………………………………………………………13

Conclusion.

Bibliography.

Applications

Introduction.

Political life is distinguished by dynamism and volatility. A special place in the component of political life is occupied by social groups, people who are in these social groups, ruling subjects. One way or another, everyone is united by the fact that they take part in political life. There is often an interweaving and struggle of interests of various socio-political forces. Like any other sphere, politics is also subject to certain rules and laws. Based on this fact, it can be understood that people are obliged to act in accordance with these rules. To describe this scheme of political relations and interactions, such concepts as role and status are used. The political status of a person is the place of a person in the political system of society, the totality of his inalienable political rights and freedoms (for example, the status of a person (citizen) in the form in which it is enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation). The political role of a person is the functions that a person performs in accordance with his political status (for example, the role of a voter, deputy, party member, protester, etc.).

Political roles, in turn, can be standardized and non-standardized. Human behavior is referred to as standardized. Non-standardized - roles that result in the establishment of new types of political activity. Non-standardized roles may include deviant behavior (i.e. deviant from the norm) or innovative political behavior. Deviant political behavior is distinguished by the fact that it is subject to constant condemnation by society. Innovative behavior tends to become fixed in society over time and acquire a natural character.

Types of personality, depending on the degree of participation in political life.

Activist.

Such individuals are characterized by obvious political activity, which includes a constant interest in certain political problems and the need for regular information about them. Most often, this is a member of a political party, a member of the movement, who, of his own free will, is introduced into political activity. Activists also include leaders of political parties and professional politicians.

episodic personality.

That person who takes only episodic participation in politics. Such a person shows a special interest in political life and activities, as a rule, is well informed about all ongoing processes. But, due to some circumstances, most often personal (illness, etc.), they can only participate in elections or in certain political actions.

Observer.

Individuals who do not always participate in political life do not always show interest in it and have a different level of competence in relation to politics.

Passive personality.

A person who is neutral or completely indifferent to politics.

Alienated personality.

An apolitical personality type, which is characterized by an extremely negative attitude towards one's participation in politics, a lack of interest and sufficient awareness of any political situation or problem.

. Political roles: types.

Political roles also include five different types.

Ordinary type.

This type does not have a significant impact on politics, but, to some extent, is interested in it.

A person who is part of a social organization or movement(indirectly included in political activities, if this follows from his role as a member of the organization).

A citizen who is a member of an elected body or is an active member of a political organization(purposefully and voluntarily included in political life to the extent that it affects the life of this political organization or body).

professional politician(political activity is not only the main occupation and source of existence, but also constitutes the meaning of life).

political leader(capable of changing the course of political events and the direction of political processes). A political leader is both the subject and the object of the political process.

The political leader, in turn, can be represented as the subject of a political process or as an object of a similar process. In a situation where a political leader acts as a subject, he becomes the head of the socio-political movement to realize the interests of the people who elected him. This, most often, occurs due to the outstanding qualities of the subject and is the result of the choice of his candidacy by people. If the leader acts as an object of the political process, then he has his own social and temporal scales, which are based on the effectiveness of his activities to meet the needs and interests of that part of society that used his services.

What other difference is there between the object of the political process and its subject? The object, in the process of solving any political problems, often experiences some pressure or influence from various interested parties. The subject is endowed with power, rights: the right to direct the will, efforts, intellect of people, to operate with material and financial values.

In general, political leadership differs from other forms of leadership in that it takes place in the political sphere of society.

Features of political leadership.

Political activity takes place within the framework of society, that is, it affects a huge number of people. As a result, a political leader practically cannot influence people directly. Its influence is carried out with the help of the media, propaganda, proxies.

Due to the power that the leader has and the need to influence a large number of people, he always has assistants: analysts, experts, image makers, speechwriters (authors of speeches) who help him build the image that is offered to the masses.

The leader is interested in being supported by as many people as possible, and therefore he seeks to win over different social groups. Therefore, the activity of a political leader always has a multi-role character.

Personality in politics

1. Personality as a subject and object of policy

2. Political socialization of the individual: essence, stages, factors

3. Political participation and its types

1. Personality as a subject and object of policy

In political science, a personality is understood not as a separate individual, and not as an individuality as such, but as a set of well-defined, that is, repetitive, stable, inherent in many individuals, qualities. or other community of people. Therefore, a personality is, first of all, a set of those social roles that it is “instructed” to perform, based on a well-defined social status occupied by a person. At the same time, a person has the ability to form his own attitude to reality, which is called the direction of the personality.

What defines a person as a subject of politics?

Firstly, the presence of a certain "autonomy" in society in the individual, which contributes to the formation of stable needs and interests;

secondly, the ability to set goals, that is, to set and achieve the goals and objectives of one's activities;

thirdly, the ability to make strong-willed efforts ("political will") to achieve the goals;

fourth, ability to self directed behavior that is

behavior focused not only on external objects, but also on oneself as a subject.

The process of becoming a personality as a subject, and even more so, the qualitative states of the achieved “subjectness”, have an infinite number of variations in real practice.

In relation to political life, politics In general, the subjectivity of a person can manifest itself as one or another combination of awareness about politics, interest to it and a specific political participation. According to these criteria, the following types of personalities are distinguished in political science (E. Vyatr):

"activists"– actively seeking informed people who are positively inclined to participate in political life;

"competent observers" – similar in characteristics to the first, but not striving for active participation (for example, scientists, writers, etc.);

"competent critics"- informed and interested, but their attitude to politics and power is generally negative (critical);

"passive citizens"- they are generally negative or neutral towards the authorities, they are not interested in politics, although they may be informed about it;

"apolitical and aloof"- they know little about politics, are not interested in it, and are sharply opposed to any personal participation in political life.

Another typology is based on the distinction between two types of an individual's attitude to power: autonomous, when power is valued because of some of its own merits, and instrumental, when power is valued as a means to achieve certain goals; as well as two types of motives when a person "enters" into power: egocentric, aimed at one's own personality or the immediate environment, and sociocentric, which concentrate on the good of any wider group of people (class, nation, settlement community) or society as a whole.

History shows that if with sociocentric motives that encourage people to actively participate in politics, the approach to power is always instrumental (since it is seen as a means for doing something for society), then with egocentric motives, both autonomous and instrumental attitude towards it. It is clear that a combination of instrumentalist and egocentric approaches has become extremely widespread in historical practice, when people look for a means to obtain personal benefits in power. Such people value power not in itself, but on the basis of what it can give them, although they can exercise it in such a way that it will benefit some community.

How and for what reasons is a person included in the system of political relations? Under the influence of what mechanisms is its quality as a subject and object of policy formed?

2. Political socialization of the individual: essence, stages, factors

Political socialization- this is the assimilation of political and cultural values, political orientations, the development of forms of political behavior that are acceptable (typical) for a given society.

As a result of political socialization, a person joins the system of functioning political relations, processes and phenomena, which, in turn, contributes to ensuring the stability of the political system. The content of political socialization is familiarization with existing political norms and traditions, the formation of political participation skills, informing about the goals and methods of the policy being pursued.

Political socialization is always concrete-historical in nature:

The qualitative boundaries of the process of socialization are set by the features of the existing political system;

Each historical type of socialization corresponds to its own “ideal” of a political person (personality);

Socialization has an age-related character and has its own characteristics at each stage of personality development.

There are two types of political socialization: direct (primary) and indirect (secondary).

Direct socialization- this is a direct acquisition of political knowledge, attitudes, skills.

indirect socialization- a kind of "projection" of character traits, early childhood experience, the immediate environment of the individual on the formed political qualities. Thus, the child's positive or negative attitudes towards his father can be further transformed into attitudes towards political objects (president, parliament, court, etc.).

Political socialization of the individual consists of several qualitative stages.

Politicization stage: already in early childhood, the concept is formed that in addition to adults in school and family there is also an external authority.

Personalization stage: awareness of political power through political figures symbolizing it, for example, the president, the prime minister

minister, policeman, unlike, say, Santa Claus.

Idealization stage: attributing exceptionally positive qualities to a politician.

Stage of institutionalization: the transition from a personified perception of politics to a more impersonal, abstract one (at the level of perception of political institutions).

The study of political thinking in children made it possible to highlight the uneven political development of the individual. For example, from the age of 11 to 13 there is a rapid development of political ideas, while in the period from 16 to 18 this process noticeably slows down. At the same time, the older the teenager, the more his thinking is capable of a much greater degree of abstraction (such concepts as human rights, freedoms, power are used). In the adolescent period, the ideological foundations of the personality are laid, which, as practice shows, turn out to be the most stable.

In Western political science there are four basic models of political socialization (R. Merelman).

system model. It is characterized by the formation of a positive attitude towards the authorities, the existing legal order. The most important factors of socialization: family and school, as well as the environment of the individual, her peers. Characteristic of the Anglo-American political culture.

hegemonic model. It is characterized by the formation of a hostile attitude among young people to any socio-political system, except for “their own”. Leading factors: mass media

pluralistic model. The formation of citizens' ideas about their political interests, the desire to participate in the implementation of their civic position. Leading factors: family, school, media, parties and interest groups.

conflict model. It comes down to the formation of loyalty to a certain political group and the readiness to support it in the struggle against other groups. Leading factors: mainly media, parties, interest groups.

In each political system, socialization has its own characteristics associated with historical conditions, the nature of the political regime, the predominant type of spiritual values, and political culture as a whole.

3. Political participation and its types

Political participation- this is the influence of citizens on the functioning of the political system, the formation of political institutions and the development of political decisions at any level of political power (local or national). Political participation can include actions to delegate authority (electoral behavior), activist

activities aimed at supporting candidates and parties in election campaigns, attending rallies and participating in demonstrations, participating in the activities of parties, interest groups, etc.

So what are the main types of political participation?

Usually in political science, orthodox and unorthodox political participation and similar conventional and non-conventional ones. In a separate type stand out political crimes, that is, political activity using illegitimate violence.

To orthodox includes participation that ensures the stability and functioning of the political system, as well as the presentation of requirements to it, expressed in legal forms.

To unorthodox include unauthorized actions related to the expression of demands and directed against the political system (protest behavior).

Political participation can also be subdivided according to the degree of activity: active and passive. By combining the two parameters (acceptable and unacceptable) and the degree of activity (active and passive), four types of political participation can be obtained (see table below).

Throughout the history of mankind, people with a strong will, as if gifted from above with some kind of charisma, decided the fate of other people, countries, the world, established their own order and power, and many of them, even after death, still continue to influence socio-political life. .

Types of power

Considering the concept of "power" as a general sociological category, it is customary to distinguish three types of management. This is legal (lawful-rational), traditional, charismatic power. In science, they are usually called ideal types. Such a division was once proposed by the famous German sociologist and historian M. Weber. It should be noted that charismatic leaders often have two sociological characteristics: they are mostly people from the periphery, and sometimes even citizens of another state, and in almost one hundred percent of cases they come to power not legally, but through usurpation or as a result of existing critical circumstances.

Charismatic power as an ideal type

Charismatic power was defined by Max Weber as one of the ideal types. In his research, he does not pay enough attention to how a particular leader becomes a ruler and remains so, preferring to explore more the relationship between citizens and leaders, that is, the so-called social factors.

Thus, M. Weber determines that traditional power is based on the fact that citizens automatically agree to this system precisely because of its existence. This means that people emotionally and often contrary to the effectiveness of the system continue to maintain the existing order. On the contrary, lawful-rational government, precisely because of its effectiveness, maintains in citizens the belief in the legitimacy of government, which gives people conviction in the justice of such power.

Leader as the basis of charismatic power

Charismatic power is based solely on the ability of the leader, and often it does not matter whether these qualities are real or imaginary. Weber in his works does not define what exactly is meant by this concept. With regard to a charismatic personality, he implies that this is a kind of leader with supernatural and superhuman qualities, or at least exceptional abilities and capabilities. Thus, religious figures fall under the concept of charismatics, but the question of whether these leaders had real power remains open. According to Weber, the main characteristic of charismatic power is the presence of an acute social crisis; in fact, the scientist does not consider that the leader's popularity can arise without this.

Subsequent researchers have significantly expanded the scope of such a concept as "charisma". If initially this concept was associated exclusively with a certain “divine gift”, then already in the works that the recognized charismatic leaders themselves left behind, the explanation of this phenomenon is not limited to a supernatural manifestation. Points of view on this issue are extremely different. For example, Marxist determinism connects the appearance of such people with the will of a society that requires change, rejecting the role of the individual himself. And vice versa, such an ideal charismatic leader as French President Charles de Gaulle fully supports the theory of the exclusive role of the individual himself in this or that crisis period, which he directly writes about in his book “On the Edge of the Sword”.

Characteristics of this type of power

The set of distinctive properties as a characteristic of charismatic power is manifested in the following points:

1. Extremely personal character.
2. Non-historical, that is, the leader often does not adhere to any stereotypes, rules and even laws that existed before.
3. Alienation of charismatic power from purely practical and everyday problems, in particular from the economy. Indiscriminate methods in economic problems - often the charismatic power prefers not to collect taxes, but to take away funds, confiscate and expropriate them, trying to give these actions a legal look.

signs

Signs of charismatic power will manifest themselves in the following form:

1. Public sharing of ideas, future accomplishments and support of the leader, followers connect personal plans with the activities of the organization.
2. The optimism and high degree of enthusiasm of supporters, each of whom is actually trying to become a charismatic leader of the "lower order".
3. The central place in any social relationship is given to the leader. Thus, it creates the feeling that the leader is everywhere and takes part in any social event.

Pros and Cons of Establishing Charismatic Authority

Legitimacy, that is, the consent of citizens to such a rule, arises as soon as a sufficiently large number of people are ready to become followers of their leader. There is no more personal form of government than the charismatic type of government. The power acquired by the leader surrounds him with a peculiar aura and helps him to believe more and more in his abilities, which, in turn, attracts an increasing number of adherents. But a charismatic leader would not be one if he did not feel the needs of people.

It is leadership power, charismatic in nature, that acquires serious significance in such conditions when radical changes are needed or in an environment that is not adapted for this, is inert due to ingrained culture and traditions, and often has been in a state of stagnation for a long time. However, it is rather unstable due to the fact that the leader must consistently demonstrate his strength and exclusivity, manage and simultaneously solve more and more new tasks, and with resounding success. Otherwise, even from a single failure, the leader in the eyes of followers may lose attractiveness, which means a loss of legitimacy.

In addition, this type of power has both positive aspects and disadvantages. The main negative parameter is that power, charismatic in its essence, is at the same time a usurpation, moreover, forcing the ruler himself to delve into and solve almost all everyday and even the smallest domestic issues of the state. However, if the leader can cope with these tasks, there is a serious positive effect associated with the fact that the government actually satisfies the majority of public interests.

Characteristics of a charismatic leader

At a minimum, a charismatic person must have a number of features that can be called basic:

• energy, that is, the ability to "radiate" and "charge" the energy of the surrounding people;
• impressive colorful appearance, which implies attractiveness, not beauty (often leaders of this type have physical defects);
• a high degree of independence, primarily from the opinions of others;
• excellent oratory skills;
• absolute and unshakable confidence in yourself and your own actions.

Examples of Charismatic Leaders

Charismatic leaders were originally characterized by Max Weber as religious personalities, but capable of changing the social life of society. There is no doubt that both Jesus Christ and the Prophet Muhammad were charismatic persons who still influence today. But being a charismatic person and being a charismatic leader are two completely different things. In the future, the sociologist George Barnes slightly corrected the concept, and at the moment for those whom we are used to calling charismatic leaders, another definition is more appropriate, namely, “heroic leader”.

Such heroic personalities were Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, Lenin and Stalin, Hitler and de Gaulle. These people, who have completely different abilities, are vivid examples of charismatics who have become heroic leaders in critical events. In this context, it is very difficult to call large manufacturing leaders such as Henry Ford or Bill Gates charismatic leaders, although they certainly have charisma. In total, we can add to this some classic examples of charismatic (heroic) leaders who in reality had minimal power, showing their influence more through the support of supporters - Jeanne d, Arc, Marshal Zhukov, Che Guevara. History knows many examples when power, charismatic and legitimate, generally ended in the complete defeat of both the leader himself and his ideas, and served as an instrument for the death of states and the reorganization of the world order. This is undoubtedly Napoleon Bonaparte, Adolf Hitler, Mikhail Gorbachev.

Of the living charismatic leaders, only one person can be fully attributed to this concept without any reservations - Fidel Castro, who, undoubtedly, even after the resignation of power, is an extremely influential leader both among his own people and in the world social environment.