Who burned the capital of the Golden Horde. All khans of the golden horde. Greatness that has sunk into centuries

He divided all his possessions among his sons. eldest son, Jochi, got a huge expanse of land from the headwaters of the Syr Darya to the mouths of the Danube, which, however, still had to be conquered to a large extent. Jochi died before the death of his father and his lands passed into the possession of five sons: Horde, Batu, Tuka-Timur, Sheiban and Teval. The horde was at the head of the tribes that roamed between the Volga and the upper reaches of the Syr Darya, Batu received the western possessions of the Jochi ulus. The last khans of the Golden Horde (since 1380) and the khans of Astrakhan (1466 - 1554) came from the Horde clan; the Batu clan ruled the Golden Horde until 1380. The possessions of Khan Batu were called the Golden Horde, the possessions of the Khan of the Horde - the White Horde (in the Russian annals of Blue).

Golden Horde and Russia. Map

We know relatively little about the reign of the first Batu Khan. He died in 1255. He was succeeded by his son Sartak, who, however, did not rule the Horde, as he died on the way to Mongolia, where he went to receive approval for the throne. The young Ulakchi, appointed as Sartak's successor, also soon died, and then Batu's brother Berkay or Berke (1257 - 1266) came to the throne. Berkay was followed by Mengu-Timur (1266 - 1280 or 1282). Under him, the grandson of Jochi, Nogai, who dominated the Don steppes and partly captured even the Crimea, gained significant influence on the internal affairs of the khanate. He is the main sower of unrest after the death of Mengu-Timur. After civil strife and several short reigns, in 1290 Mengu-Timur's son Tokhta (1290-1312) seized power. He enters into a fight with Nogai and defeats him. In one of the battles, Nogai was killed.

Tokhta's successor was the grandson of Mengu-Timur Uzbek (1312 - 1340). The time of his reign can be considered the most brilliant in the history of the Golden Horde. . Uzbek was followed by his son Dzhanibek (1340 - 1357). Under him, the Tatars no longer send their own Baskaks to Russia: the Russian princes themselves begin to collect tribute from the population and take it to the Horde, which was much easier for the people. Being a zealous Muslim, Janibek, however, did not oppress those who professed other religions. He was killed by his own son Berdibek (1357 - 1359). Then the unrest and the change of khans begin. In the course of 20 years (1360 - 1380), 14 khans were replaced in the Golden Horde. Their names are known to us only thanks to the inscriptions on the coins. At this time, a temnik rises in the Horde (literally the head of 10,000, generally a military leader) Mamai. However, in 1380 he was defeated by Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo field and was soon killed.

History of the Golden Horde

After the death of Mamai, power in the Golden Horde passed to the descendant of the eldest son of Jochi, the Horde (some news, however, call him a descendant of Tuka-Timur) Tokhtamysh(1380 - 1391). The offspring of Batu lost power, and the White Horde united with the Golden Horde. After Tokhtamysh, the darkest period begins in the history of the Golden Horde. A struggle begins between the Tokhtamysheviches and proteges of the great Central Asian conqueror Timur. The enemy of the first was the Nogai commander (temnik) Edigey. Having great influence, he constantly intervenes in civil strife, replaces khans and finally dies in the fight against the last Tokhtamyshevich on the banks of the Syr Darya. After that, khans from other clans appear on the throne. The Horde is weakening, its clashes with Moscow are becoming less and less frequent. The last Khan of the Golden Horde was Akhmat or Sayyid-Ahmed. With the death of Akhmat, one can consider the end of the Golden Horde; his many sons, who held out on the lower reaches of the Volga, formed Khanate of Astrakhan never had political power.

The sources for the history of the Golden Horde are exclusively Russian and Arabic (mainly Egyptian) chronicles and inscriptions on coins.

In the middle of the 13th century, one of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, moved his headquarters to Beijing, founding the Yuan dynasty. The rest of the Mongol state was nominally subordinate to the great khan in Karakorum. One of the sons of Genghis Khan - Chagatai (Jagatai) received the lands of most of Central Asia, and the grandson of Genghis Khan Hulagu owned the territory of Iran, part of the Near East and Central Asia and Transcaucasia. This usul, singled out in 1265, is called the Hulaguid state after the name of the dynasty. Another grandson of Genghis Khan from his eldest son Jochi - Batu founded the state of the Golden Horde History of Russia, A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgieva 2004 - from 56.

The Golden Horde is a medieval state in Eurasia, created by the Turkic-Mongolian tribes. It was founded in the early 40s of the 13th century as a result of the conquered campaigns of the Mongols. The name of the state came from the magnificent tent of the Golden Horde that stood in its capital, sparkling in the sun: myths and reality. V L Egorov 1990 - p. 5.

Initially, the Golden Horde was part of the vast Mongol Empire. The khans of the Golden Horde in the first decades of its existence were considered subordinate to the supreme Mongol khan in Karakorum in Mongolia. The Horde khans received a label in Mongolia for the right to reign in the Ulus of Jochi. But, starting from 1266, the Golden Horde Khan Mengu-Timur for the first time ordered that his name be minted on coins instead of the name of the All-Mongolian sovereign. From this time begins the countdown of the independent existence of the Golden Horde.

Batu Khan founded a powerful state, which some called the Golden Horde, while others called the White Horde - the khan of this Horde was called the White Khan. The Mongols, often called Tatars, were a small minority in the Horde - and soon they dissolved among the Polovtsian Turks, adopting their language and giving them their name: the Polovtsy also began to be called Tatars. Following the example of Genghis Khan, Batu divided the Tatars into tens, hundreds and thousands; these military units corresponded to clans and tribes; a group of tribes united in a ten thousandth corps - tumen, in Russian, "darkness" Journal "History of the State" February 2010 No. 2 article "Golden Horde" from 22.

As for the now familiar name “Golden Horde”, it began to be used at a time when there was no trace left of the state founded by Khan Batu. For the first time this phrase appeared in the “Kazan chronicler”, written in the second half of the 16th century, in the form “Golden Horde” and “Great Golden Horde”. Its origin is associated with the khan's headquarters, or rather, with the khan's ceremonial yurt, richly decorated with gold and expensive materials. Here is how a traveler of the 14th century describes it: “Uzbek sits in a tent, called a golden tent, decorated and outlandish. It consists of wooden rods covered with gold leaves. In the middle of it is a wooden throne, overlaid with silver gilded leaves, its legs are made of silver, and the top is studded with precious stones.

There is no doubt that the term “Golden Horde” was used in colloquial speech in Russia already in the 14th century, but it never appears in the annals of that period. Russian chroniclers proceeded from the emotional load of the word “golden”, which was used at that time as a synonym for everything good, bright and joyful, which could not be said about an oppressor state, and even inhabited by “nasty ones”. That is why the name "Golden Horde" appears only after all the horrors of Mongol domination have been erased by time. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, A. M. Prokhorov, Moscow, 1972 - p. 563

The Golden Horde covers a vast territory. It includes: Western Siberia, Northern Khorezm, Volga Bulgaria, Northern Caucasus, Crimea, Desht-i-Kipchak (Kipchak steppe from the Irtysh to the Danube). The extreme southeastern limit of the Golden Horde was Southern Kazakhstan (now the city of Taraz), and the extreme northeastern limit was the cities of Tyumen and Isker in Western Siberia. From north to south, the Horde extended from the middle reaches of the river. Kamy to Derbent. All this gigantic territory was quite homogeneous in terms of landscape - it was mostly steppe. The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Sarai, located in the lower reaches of the Volga (saray in Russian means palace). The city was founded by Batu Khan in 1254. Destroyed in 1395 by Tamerlane. The hill fort near the village of Selitrennoye, which remained from the first capital of the Golden Horde - Sarai-Batu ("city of Batu"), is striking in its size. Spread over several hillocks, it stretches along the left bank of the Akhtuba for more than 15 km. It was a state consisting of semi-independent usuls, united under the rule of the khan. They were ruled by the Batu brothers and the local aristocracy. History of Russia, A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgieva 2004 - from 57

If we evaluate the total area, then the Golden Horde was undoubtedly the largest state of the Middle Ages. Arab and Persian historians of the XIV-XV centuries. in total they reported on its size in figures that struck the imagination of contemporaries. One of them noted that the length of the state extends for 8, and the width for 6 months of travel. Another somewhat reduced the size: up to 6 months of travel in length and 4 in width. The third relied on specific geographical landmarks and reported that this country extends “from the Sea of Constantinople to the Irtysh River, 800 farsakhs in length, and in width from Babelebvab (Derbent) to the city of Bolgar, that is, approximately 600 farsakhs” Golden Horde : myths and reality. V L Egorov 1990 - p. 7.

The main population of the Golden Horde were Kipchaks, Bulgars and Russians.

During the 13th century, the Caucasian border was one of the most turbulent, since the local peoples (Circassians, Alans, Lezgins) were not yet completely subordinate to the Mongols and offered stubborn resistance to the conquerors. The Tauride Peninsula also formed part of the Golden Horde from the beginning of its existence. It was after being included in the territory of this state that it received a new name - Crimea, after the name of the main city of this ulus. However, the Mongols themselves occupied in the 13th - 14th centuries. only the northern, steppe, part of the peninsula. At that time, its coast and mountainous regions represented a whole series of small feudal estates semi-dependent on the Mongols. The most important and famous among them were the Italian colony cities of Kafa (Feodosia), Soldaya (Sudak), Cembalo (Balaklava). In the mountains of the southwest there was a small principality of Theodoro, the capital of which was the well-fortified city of Mangup Great Soviet Encyclopedia, A M Prokhorov, Moscow, 1972 - p.

Relations with the Mongols of Italians and local feudal lords were maintained thanks to brisk trade. But this did not in the least prevent the Saray khans from attacking their trade partners from time to time and treating them as their own tributaries. To the west of the Black Sea, the border of the state stretched along the Danube, without crossing it, to the Hungarian fortress of Turnu Severin, which closed the exit from the Lower Danube Lowland. “The northern borders of the state in this region were limited by the spurs of the Carpathians and included the steppe spaces of the Prut-Dniester interfluve History of Russia 9-18c, V. I. Moryakov higher education, Moscow, 2004 - p. 95.

It was here that the border of the Golden Horde with the Russian principalities began. It passed approximately along the border of the steppe and forest-steppe. Between the Dniester and the Dnieper, the border stretched in the area of \u200b\u200bthe modern Vinnitsa and Cherkasy regions. In the Dnieper basin, the possessions of the Russian princes ended somewhere between Kyiv and Kanev. From here, the border line went to the area of modern Kharkov, Kursk, and then went to the Ryazan limits along the left bank of the Don. To the east of the Ryazan Principality, from the Moksha River to the Volga, a forest stretched, inhabited by Mordovian tribes.

The Mongols had little interest in the territories covered with dense forests, but, despite this, the entire Mordovian population was completely under the control of the Golden Horde and constituted one of its northern uluses. This is clearly evidenced by the sources of the XIV century. In the Volga basin during the XIII century. the border ran north of the Sura River, and in the next century it gradually shifted to the mouth of the Sura and even south of it. The vast area of modern Chuvashia in the XIII century. completely under the control of the Mongols. On the left bank of the Volga, the Golden Horde borderland stretched north of the Kama. Here were the former possessions of Volga Bulgaria, which turned into an integral part of the Golden Horde without any hint of autonomy. The Bashkirs who lived in the middle and southern Urals also formed part of the state of the Mongols. They owned in this area all the lands south of the White River Golden Horde and its fall Grekov B. D. Yakubovsky A. Yu. 1998 - from 55.

The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of its time. At the beginning of the 14th century, she could put up 300,000 troops. The heyday of the Golden Horde falls on the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312 - 1342). In 1312, Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde. Then, like other medieval states, the Horde experienced a period of fragmentation. Already in the 14th century, the Central Asian possessions of the Golden Horde separated, and in the 15th century, the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan (mid-15th century) and Siberian (end of the 15th century) khanates stood out History of Russia, A. S. Orlov, V. BUT. Georgieva 2004 - from 57.

When determining the historical-geographical and ethnic origins of the Golden Horde, it is important to clarify the terminology used in historical literature. The phrase "Mongol-Tatars" arose in Russian historical science in the 19th century. Initially, "" is one of the Mongol-speaking tribes united at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries. Temuchin (Temujin, later Genghis Khan). After a series of conquests by Genghis Khan, "Tatars" began to be called in Chinese, Arabic, Persian, Russian and Western European sources of the 13th-14th centuries. all nomadic tribes (including non-Mongolian ones), united and subjugated by him. During this period, several states arose in which the Mongols formed the organizing and leading basis. They retained their self-name - the Mongols, but the surrounding peoples continued to call them Tatars. During the existence of the Golden Horde, its ethnic base - the Mongols assimilated by the Turkic-speaking Polovtsians - was referred to in Russian chronicles only as Tatars. In addition, several new Turkic-speaking peoples formed on its territory, which eventually adopted the ethnonym "Tatars" as a self-name: Volga Tatars, Crimean Tatars, Siberian Tatars.

Mongolian tribes in the XII century. occupied a territory limited by the Gobi, the ridge and Lake Baikal. The Tatars lived in the area of lakes Buir-nor and Dalai-Nor, the Uryankhats inhabited the northeastern regions of Mongolia and, the Khungirats occupied the southeastern part of Mongolia, the Taichiuds (Taichzhiuds) were located along the Onon River, the Merkits roamed along, and the Kereites and Naimans - further to west. Between and in the zone lived Oirats, "people of the forests."

The population of Mongolia in the XII century. It was subdivided according to the way of life into forest and steppe. The forest peoples lived in the taiga and taiga zones and were mainly engaged in hunting and fishing. Most of the tribes led a nomadic pastoral economy. The Mongols lived in yurts, collapsible or mounted on carts. A wagon with a yurt was transported by bulls; in the parking lots, such wagons were located in a ring. Horses, cows, sheep and goats were bred, and camels in smaller numbers. hunted and, to a limited extent, engaged in sowing, mainly millet.

The formation and collapse of the empire of Genghis Khan

The camps of the Temuchin family itself, related to the Taichiuds, were located between the rivers Onon and Kerulen. In the internecine struggle at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. Temujin subjugated all the Mongol tribes and at the kurultai of 1206 he was proclaimed Genghis Khan (later this title was fixed as a name). After that, the surrounding peoples were subordinated -, and the "forest peoples" of the south. In 1211, the Mongols conquered the Tangut state, and then, within a few years, northern China. In 1219-1221 the state of Khorezmshah was conquered, which occupied Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, Iran, and the middle Indus basin, after which Genghis Khan himself returned to. He sent his commanders Zhebe and Subetai-baatur with a large detachment to the north, commanding them to reach eleven countries and peoples, such as: Kanlin, Kibchaut, Bachzhigit, Orosut, Machjarat, Asut, Sasut, Serkesut, Keshimir, Bolar, Raral ( Lalat), cross the high-water rivers Idil and Ayakh, and also reach the city of Kivamen-kermen.

Already at the beginning of the XIII century. the association headed by Genghis Khan included non-Mongolian tribes (Uigurs, Tanguts,). The ethnic diversity of the concepts of "Mongols", "Tatars" intensified with the inclusion of the northern population, the Tangut state, Central Asia, and the North into the Mongol state. By the 20s. 13th century The Mongolian state covered the space from Manchuria to the Caspian Sea and from the middle Irtysh to the middle Indus. It was an association of multilingual peoples at various levels of socio-economic and political development. After the death of Genghis Khan (1227), the empire was divided among his descendants into uluses.

Ulus- the Mongols have a tribal association subordinate to the khan or leader, in a broad sense - all subject people, as well as the territory of nomads. With the formation of the Mongolian states, this term is increasingly used in the sense of a "state" in general or an administrative-territorial unit.

The ulus of the Great Khan, which included China, Tibet, the Baikal region and the south, was ruled by the son of Genghis Khan Ogede (Ogedei). The capital of the ulus was in Karakorum and its ruler, initially - in fact, and later - formally, was the head of all Mongolian states. The ulus of Chzhagatai occupied: the middle and upper reaches of the Amu Darya and the lake, Semirechye, and the Takla-Makan desert. The descendants of Hulagu received Northern Iran and gradually expanded their possessions throughout Persia, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and. The eldest son of Genghis Khan Jochi got the western outskirts of the Mongol Empire: Altai, the south of Western Siberia before the confluence and part of Central Asia between the Caspian and the Aral, as well as Khorezm (lower reaches of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya).

The folding of the main state territory of the Golden Horde

Under the name "ulus of Jochi" (options "ulus of Batu", "ulus of Berke", etc.) in eastern sources, the state is known, which in Russians is referred to as the "Horde" (the term "Golden Horde" appeared in the annals only in the second half of the 16th century, after the disappearance of the state). Jochi's son Batu Khan managed to expand the territory of his ulus. As a result of aggressive campaigns from the autumn of 1236 to the spring of 1241, the Polovtsian nomad camps, Volga Bulgaria, and most of the Russian principalities were conquered and devastated. After that, the Mongols invaded the territory of Hungary, where they also won a number of victories, were defeated in, and then reached the coast. Despite the successes, by this time Batu's troops were significantly weakened, which was the main reason for his return to the Black Sea steppes by 1243. From this moment, a new state originates.

The "core" of the Golden Horde, its territorial basis was the steppe strip - the Black Sea, Caspian and North Kazakhstan steppes up to the Siberian river Chulyman (Chulym) - known in the Middle Ages in the East as Desht-i-Kipchak. In the second half of the XIII century. the boundaries of the Horde were gradually established, which were determined both by natural geographical points and by the borders of neighboring states. In the west, the territory of the state was limited by the lower course from its mouth to the southern Carpathians. From here, the border of the Horde stretched through thousands of kilometers to the northeast, passing along the strip almost everywhere and rarely entering. The foothills of the Carpathians served as a border with, then in the middle reaches of the Prut, Dniester and Southern Bug, the Horde lands came into contact with the Galician principality, and in Porosie with the Kiev region. On the left bank of the Dnieper, the border from the lower reaches of the Psel and Vorskla went to Kursk, then turned sharply to the north (sources report that the Russian city of Tula and its environs were directly controlled by the Horde Baskaks) and again went south to the sources of the Don. Further, the territory of the Horde captured forest areas, reaching in the north to the line of the source of the Don - the confluence of the Tsna and Moksha - the mouth of the Sura - the Volga near the mouth of the Vetluga - the middle Vyatka -. There is no specific information about the northeastern and eastern borders of the state in the sources, however, it is known that the Southern Urals, the territory to the Irtysh and Chulaman, the foothills of Altai and Lake Balkhash were in his possession. In Central Asia, the border stretched from Balkhash to the middle reaches of the Syr Darya and further west to the south of the Mangyshlak peninsula. From the Caspian Sea to the Black Sea, the possessions of the Horde reached the foothills of the Caucasus, and the coast served as the natural border of the state in the southwest.

Within the outlined borders, there was direct power of the Golden Horde khans in the middle of the 13th-14th centuries, however, there were also territories that were dependent on the Horde, which was expressed mainly in the payment of tribute. The dependent territories included the Russian principalities, with the exception of the northwestern ones (Turovo-Pinsky, Polotsk and their internal appanages, which became part of Lithuania in the second half of the 13th century), for some time the Bulgarian kingdom, politically fragmented by this time, and the Serbian kingdom . The southern coast, where several Genoese colonies were located, was also a territory semi-dependent on the Horde. In the XIV century. the khans managed to capture for a short time some areas southwest of the Caspian Sea - Azerbaijan and northern Iran.

The population of the Golden Horde was distinguished by great diversity. The bulk were Polovtsians (Kipchaks), who lived, as before the arrival of the Mongols, in the Black Sea and Caspian steppes. In the XIV century. the newcomer Mongols gradually disappeared into the Kipchak environment, forgetting their language and script. This process is vividly described by one Arab contemporary: “In ancient times, this state was the country of the Kipchaks, but when the Tatars took possession of it, the Kipchaks became their subjects. Then they (Tatars) mixed and intermarried with them (Kipchaks), and the earth prevailed over the natural and racial qualities of them (Tatars), and they all became like Kipchaks, as if they were of the same (with them) clan, because the Mongols settled on the land of the Kipchaks, married with them and remained to live in their land (the Kipchaks). Assimilation was facilitated by the common economic life of the Polovtsians and Mongols, nomadic cattle breeding remained the basis of their way of life even during the period of the Golden Horde. However, the khan's authorities needed cities to obtain maximum income from crafts and trade, so the conquered cities were restored rather quickly, and from the 50s. 13th century began the active construction of cities in the steppes.

The first capital of the Golden Horde was Saray, founded by Khan Batu in the early 1250s. Its remains are located on the left bank of the Akhtuba near the village of Selitrennoye, Astrakhan Region. The population, reaching 75 thousand people, were Mongols, Alans, Kipchaks, Circassians, Russians and Byzantine Greeks, who lived apart from each other. Saray al-Jedid (in translation - the New Palace) was founded upstream of the Akhtuba under Khan Uzbek (1312-1342), and later the capital of the state was moved here. Of the cities that arose on the right bank of the Volga, the most important were Ukek (Uvek) on the outskirts of modern Saratov, Beldzhamen on the Volga-Don lane, Khadzhitarkhan above modern Astrakhan. In the lower reaches of the Yaik, Saraichik arose - an important transit point for caravan trade, in the middle Kum - Madzhar (Madzhary), at the mouth of the Don - Azak, parts of the Crimean peninsula - Crimea and Kyrk-Er, on the Tura (a tributary of the Tobol) - Tyumen (Chingi-Tura ). The number of cities and settlements founded by the Horde in and adjacent Asian territories, known to us from historical sources and studied by archaeologists, was much greater. Only the largest of them are named here. Almost all cities were ethnically diverse. Another characteristic feature of the Golden Horde cities was the complete absence of external fortifications, at least until the 60s. 14th century

Immediately after the defeat of the lands of the Volga Bulgaria in 1236, part of the Bulgar population moved to the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Mordvins also left for Russia before the Mongols came here. During the existence of the Golden Horde in the Lower Kama region, the bulk of the population, as before, was the Bulgars. The old Bulgarian cities of Bulgar, Bilyar, Suvar, etc. have been preserved here (before the foundation of Saray, Batu used Bulgar as his residence), and also gradually rises to the north of the Kama. The process of mixing the Bulgars with the Kipchak-Mongolian elements led to the emergence of a new Turkic ethnic group - the Kazan Tatars. The forest area from the Volga to Tsna was inhabited by a settled Finno-Ugric population, mainly. To control it, the Mongols founded the city of Mokhshi on the Moksha River near the modern city of Narovchat in the Penza region.

As a result of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the composition and number of the population in the southern Russian steppes changed. Relatively populated and economically developed lands became depopulated. The first decades of the existence of the Horde in its northern territories in the forest-steppe zone lived the Russian population. However, over time, this zone becomes more and more empty, Russian settlements here fall into decay, and their inhabitants leave for the territory of Russian principalities and lands.

The westernmost part of the Horde from the Dnieper to the lower Danube before the Mongol invasion was inhabited by Polovtsy, wanderers and a small number of Slavs. From the middle of the XIII century. the surviving part of this population joined the Kipchak-Mongolian ethnic group, and the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and the Crimean peninsula were a nomadic area. There were few stationary settlements in this territory, the most significant of them was the Slavic Belgorod on the Dniester estuary, revived by the Mongols with the Turkic name Ak-Kerman. In the North Caucasus, the Horde khans waged a long struggle with local tribes who fought for their independence -, Alans,. This struggle was quite successful, so the real possessions of the Horde reached only the foothills. The largest settlement here was the ancient Derbent. A large number of cities continued to exist in the Central Asian part of the Horde: Urgench (Khorezm), Dzhend, Sygnak, Turkestan, Otrar, Sairam, etc. There were almost no settled settlements in the steppes from the lower Volga to the upper reaches of the Irtysh. Bashkirs settled in the Southern Urals - nomadic cattle breeders and hunters, and Finno-Ugric tribes settled along the Tobol and the middle Irtysh. The interaction of the local population with the newcomer Mongolian and Kipchak elements led to the emergence of the ethnic group of Siberian Tatars. There were also few cities here, except for Tyumen, Isker (Siberia) is known on, near modern Tobolsk.

Ethnic and economic geography. Administrative-territorial division.

The ethnic diversity of the population was reflected in the economic geography of the Horde. The peoples that were part of it, in most cases, retained their way of life and economic activities, therefore, nomadic cattle breeding, agriculture of settled tribes, and other industries were important in the economy of the state. The khans themselves and representatives of the Horde administration received most of their income in the form of tribute from the conquered peoples, from the labor of artisans who were forcibly relocated to new cities, and from trade. The last article was of great importance, so the Mongols took care of the improvement of the trade routes that passed through the territory of the state. The center of the state territory - Lower - connected the Volga route with Bulgaria and the Russian lands. In the place closest to the Don, the city of Beljamen arose, to ensure the safety and convenience of merchants crossing the lane. To the east, the caravan road went through the Northern Caspian Sea to Khiva. Part of this route from Saraichik to Urgench, which ran through desert waterless regions, was very well equipped: at a distance approximately corresponding to a day's march (about 30 km), wells were dug and caravanserais were built. Khadzhitarkhan was connected by land road with the city of Madzhar, from which there were routes to Derbent and Azak. It communicated with the Horde both by water and land routes: along the Northern Black Sea and the Danube, from the Crimean Genoese ports through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles in. The Dnieper route has largely lost its significance compared to the previous period.

In administrative-territorial terms, the Horde was divided into uluses, the boundaries of which were not clear and permanent. In general, this concept itself in the period under review is increasingly used in the sense of a spatial unit, although initially the “ulus” was also understood as the entire population given by the khan under the control of any person. It is known that since the 1260s. until 1300, the western part of the Horde from the lower Danube to the lower Dnieper was the ulus of Nogai's temnik. Although these territories, formally considered part of the Horde, were given to Nogai by Khan Berke, their dependence on the center was nominal. Nogai enjoyed virtually complete independence and often had a significant influence on the Sarai khans. Only after the defeat of Nogai by Khan Tokta in 1300 was the center of separatism eliminated. The northern steppe part of the Crimean peninsula was the Crimea ulus. The steppes between and the Volga are called in the sources the Desht-i-Kipchak ulus. It was ruled by officials of the highest rank - beklyaribeks or viziers, and the space of the entire ulus was divided into smaller units, which were under the control of lower level chiefs - ulusbeks (a similar system existed in all administrative-territorial units of the Horde). The territory to the east from the Volga to Yaik - the Sarai ulus - was the place of nomads of the Khan himself. The ulus of the son of Juchi Shiban occupied the territories of the modern Northern and up to the Irtysh and Chulym, and the ulus of Khorezm - the area southwest of the Aral Sea to the Caspian Sea. To the east of the Syr Darya was Kok-Orda (Blue Horde) with its center in Sygnak.

The listed names refer to the largest uluses of the Golden Horde known to us, although smaller ones also existed. These administrative-territorial units were distributed by khans to relatives, military leaders or officials at their own discretion and were not hereditary possessions. The cities of the Golden Horde were special administrative units controlled by officials appointed by the khan.

Disintegration of the Horde

The reduction of the territory of the Horde began at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. The defeat of Nogai in 1300 weakened the military power of the state in the west, as a result of which the Danubian lowland was lost, captured by the Kingdom of Hungary and the emerging Wallachian state.

60s–70s 14th century - the time of internal strife and the struggle for power in the Horde itself. As a result of the rebellion of Temnik Mamai in 1362, the state actually split into two warring parts, the border between which was the Volga. The steppes between the Volga, Don and Dnieper, and the Crimea were under the rule of Mamai. The left bank of the Volga with the capital of the state, Sarai al-Dzhedid, and the surrounding areas formed a counterweight to Mamai, in which the capital aristocracy played the main role, on the whims of which the Sarai khans who changed quite often depended. Passing along the line, splitting the Golden Horde, it existed quite steadily until 1380. Mamai managed to capture Saray al-Jedid in 1363, 1368 and 1372, but these seizures were short-lived and did not eliminate the split of the state. Internal strife weakened the military and political power of the Horde, in connection with which more and more new territories began to fall away from it.

In 1361, the ulus of Khorezm broke away, which had long been the bearer of separatist tendencies. It formed its own ruling dynasty, which did not recognize the power of Saray. The separation of Khorezm caused major damage to the Horde, not only politically, but also economically, since this region occupied a key position in the international caravan trade. The loss of this economically developed ulus noticeably weakened the positions of the Sarai khans, depriving them of an important support in the struggle against Mamai.

Territorial losses continued in the west as well. In the 60s. 14th century in the Eastern Carpathian region, the Moldavian principality was formed, which captured the Prut-Dniester interfluve, destroying the Golden Horde settlements here. After the victory of Prince Olgerd over the Mongols in the battle near the Blue Waters River (now Sinyukha, the left tributary of the Southern Bug), around 1363, Lithuania began to penetrate into Podolia and the right bank of the lower Dnieper.

The victory of the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich over Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 allowed Khan Tokhtamysh to restore the relative unity of the Horde, however, two campaigns of Timur (Tamerlane) in 1391 and 1395. dealt her a devastating blow. Most of the Golden Horde cities were destroyed, in many of them life died out forever (Saray al-Jedid, Beljamen, Ukek, etc.). After that, the collapse of the state became a matter of time. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. in the Trans-Volga region, the Horde is formed, occupying the steppes from the Volga to the Irtysh, from the Caspian to the Southern Urals. In 1428–1433 An independent Crimean Khanate was founded, which initially occupied the Crimean steppes and gradually captured the entire peninsula, as well as the Northern Black Sea region. By the mid 40s. 15th century the Kazan Khanate was formed and separated on the middle Volga and the lower Kama, and in the 1450s-60s. in the Ciscaucasian steppes, a khanate was formed with a center in Khadzhitarkhan (Russian sources call this city Astrakhan). In the XV century. at the confluence of the Tobol and Irtysh with the center in Chingi-Tur (Tyumen), the Siberian Khanate gradually formed, initially dependent on the Nogai Horde. The remnants of the Golden Horde - the Great Horde - until 1502 roamed the steppes between the upper reaches of the Seversky Donets and the Volga-Don perevoloka.

Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi, Turk. Ulu Ulus- "Great State") - a medieval state in Eurasia.

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✪ The Golden Horde baptized Muscovy!

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Title and borders

Name "Golden Horde" It was first used in 1566 in the historical and publicistic work "Kazan History", when the single state itself no longer existed. Until that time, in all Russian sources, the word " Horde" used without adjective " Golden". Since the 19th century, the term has been firmly entrenched in historiography and is used to refer to the Jochi ulus as a whole, or (depending on the context) its western part with its capital in Sarai.

In the actual Golden Horde and eastern (Arab-Persian) sources, the state did not have a single name. It is usually referred to as " ulus”, with the addition of some epithet ( "Ulug ulus") or the ruler's name ( Ulus Berke), and not necessarily acting, but also reigning earlier (" Uzbek, ruler of the Berke countries», « ambassadors of Tokhtamyshkhan, sovereign of the Uzbek land"). Along with this, the old geographical term was often used in the Arab-Persian sources Desht-i-Kipchak. Word " horde” in the same sources denoted the headquarters (mobile camp) of the ruler (examples of its use in the meaning of “country” begin to be found only from the 15th century). The combination " Golden Horde" (Persian اردوی زرین ‎, Urdu-i Zarrin) meaning " golden parade tent” is found in the description of an Arab traveler in relation to the residence of Khan Uzbek. In Russian chronicles, the word "horde" usually meant an army. Its use as the name of the country becomes constant from the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries, until that time the term "Tatars" was used as the name. In Western European sources, the names " Komanov country», « Comania" or " power of the Tatars», « the land of the Tatars», « Tataria» . The Chinese called the Mongols " Tatars"(tar-tar).

In modern languages that are related to the Horde Old Tatar, the Golden Horde is called: Olug yort (senior home, homeland), Olug olys (senior district, district of the elder), Dashti kypchak, etc. At the same time, if the capital city is called Bash Kala (the main city), then the mobile headquarters is called Altyn Urda (Golden Center, Tent).

The Arab historian Al-Omari, who lived in the first half of the 14th century, defined the boundaries of the Horde as follows:

Story

Formation of Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde)

The division of the empire by Genghis Khan between his sons, carried out by 1224, can be considered the emergence of the Ulus of Jochi. After the Western campaign (1236-1242), led by the son of Jochi Batu (in the Russian chronicles Batu), the ulus expanded to the west and the Lower Volga region became its center. In 1251, a kurultai took place in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, where Mongke, the son of Tolui, was proclaimed the great khan. Batu, "senior of the family" ( aka), supported Möngke, probably hoping to gain full autonomy for his ulus. Opponents of the Jochids and Toluids from the descendants of Chagatai and Ogedei were executed, and the possessions confiscated from them were divided among Mongke, Batu and other Chingizids, who recognized their power.

Separation from the Mongol Empire

After the death of Mengu-Timur, a political crisis began in the country associated with the name of Nogai. Nogai, one of the descendants of Genghis Khan, held the post of beklyarbek under Mengu-Timur, the second most important in the state. His personal ulus was located in the west of the Golden Horde (near the Danube). Nogai set as his goal the formation of his own state, and during the reign of Tuda-Mengu (1282-1287) and Tula-Buga (1287-1291), he managed to subjugate a vast territory along the Danube, Dniester, Uzeu (Dnieper) to his power.

With the direct support of Nogai, Tokhta (1291-1312) was placed on the Sarai throne. At first, the new ruler obeyed his patron in everything, but soon, relying on the steppe aristocracy, he opposed him. The long struggle ended in 1299 with the defeat of Nogai, and the unity of the Golden Horde was again restored.

Rise of the Golden Horde

"Great Jam"

From 1359 to 1380, more than 25 khans changed on the throne of the Golden Horde, and many uluses tried to become independent. This time in Russian sources was called the "Great Zamyatnya".

Even during the life of Khan Dzhanibek (no later than 1357), his Khan Ming-Timur was proclaimed in the Ulus Shiban. And the murder in 1359 of Khan Berdibek (son of Dzhanibek) put an end to the Batuid dynasty, which caused the emergence of various pretenders to the Sarai throne from among the eastern branches of the Jochids. Taking advantage of the instability of the central government, a number of regions of the Horde for some time, following the Ulus of Shiban, acquired their own khans.

The rights to the Horde throne of the impostor Kulpa were immediately questioned by the son-in-law and at the same time the beklarbek of the murdered khan, the temnik Mamai. As a result, Mamai, who was the grandson of Isatay, an influential emir from the time of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in the western part of the Horde, up to the right bank of the Volga. Not being Genghisides, Mamai did not have the right to the title of khan, therefore he limited himself to the position of beklarbek under the puppet khans from the Batuid clan.

Khans from Ulus Shiban, descendants of Ming-Timur, tried to gain a foothold in Sarai. They did not really succeed, the rulers changed with kaleidoscopic speed. The fate of the khans largely depended on the favor of the merchant elite of the cities of the Volga region, which was not interested in a strong khan's power.

Following the example of Mamai, other descendants of the emirs also showed a desire for independence. Tengiz-Buga, also the grandson of Isatai, tried to create an independent ulus in the Syr Darya. The Jochids, who rebelled against Tengiz-Buga in 1360 and killed him, continued his separatist policy, proclaiming a khan from among themselves.

Salchen, the third grandson of the same Isatai and at the same time the grandson of Khan Dzhanibek, captured Hadji Tarkhan. Hussein-Sufi, son of Emir Nangudai and grandson of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in Khorezm in 1361. In 1362, the Lithuanian prince Olgerd seized lands in the Dnieper basin.

The troubles in the Golden Horde ended after Genghisid Tokhtamysh, with the support of Emir Tamerlane from Maverannakhr, in 1377-1380 first captured the uluses on the Syrdarya, defeating the sons of Urus Khan, and then the throne in Sarai, when Mamai came into direct conflict with the Moscow principality (defeat on Vozha (1378)). Tokhtamysh in 1380 defeated the remnants of the troops gathered by Mamai after the defeat in the Kulikovo battle on the Kalka River.

Tokhtamysh's reign

During the reign of Tokhtamysh (1380-1395), the unrest ceased and the central government again began to control the entire main territory of the Golden Horde. In 1382, the khan made a campaign against Moscow and achieved the restoration of tribute payments. After strengthening his position, Tokhtamysh opposed the Central Asian ruler Tamerlane, with whom he had previously maintained allied relations. As a result of a series of devastating campaigns in 1391-1396, Tamerlane defeated the troops of Tokhtamysh on the Terek, captured and destroyed the Volga cities, including Saray-Berke, plundered the cities of Crimea, etc. The Golden Horde was dealt a blow from which it could no longer recover.

The collapse of the Golden Horde

Since the sixties of the XIV century, since the time of the Great Memory, there have been important political changes in the life of the Golden Horde. The gradual disintegration of the state began. The rulers of the remote parts of the ulus acquired de facto independence, in particular, in 1361 the Ulus Orda-Ejen gained independence. However, until the 1390s, the Golden Horde still remained more or less a single state, but with the defeat in the war with Tamerlane and the ruin of economic centers, the process of disintegration began, accelerating from the 1420s.

In the early 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed, in 1428 the Uzbek Khanate, then the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1441) Khanates, the Nogai Horde (1440s) and the Kazakh Khanate (1465) arose. After the death of Khan Kichi-Mohammed, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.

The main among the Jochid states formally continued to be considered the Great Horde. In 1480, Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt ended unsuccessfully, and Russia was finally freed from the Tatar-Mongolian yoke. At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed during an attack on his headquarters by the Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Great Horde ceased to exist.

State structure and administrative division

According to the traditional structure of nomadic states, after 1242 Ulus Jochi was divided into two wings: right (western) and left (eastern). The eldest was considered the right wing, which was Ulus Batu. The west of the Mongols was designated in white, so the Batu Ulus was called the White Horde (Ak Orda). The right wing covered the territory of western Kazakhstan, the Volga region, the North Caucasus, the Don and Dnieper steppes, Crimea. Its center was Sarai-Batu.

The wings, in turn, were divided into uluses owned by other sons of Jochi. Initially, there were about 14 such uluses. Plano Carpini, who made a trip to the east in 1246-1247, singles out the following leaders in the Horde, indicating the places of nomads: Kuremsu on the western bank of the Dnieper, Mautsi on the east, Kartan, married to Batu's sister, in the Don steppes, Batu himself on the Volga and two thousand people along the two banks of the Dzhaik (Ural River). Berke held lands in the North Caucasus, but in 1254 Batu took these possessions for himself, ordering Berke to move east of the Volga.

At first, the ulus division was unstable: possessions could be transferred to other persons and change their boundaries. At the beginning of the XIV century, Khan Uzbek carried out a major administrative-territorial reform, according to which the right wing of the Juchi Ulus was divided into 4 large uluses: Saray, Khorezm, Crimea and Desht-i-Kypchak, headed by ulus emirs (ulusbeks) appointed by the khan. The main ulusbek was beklyarbek. The next most important dignitary was the vizier. The other two positions were occupied by especially noble or distinguished dignitaries. These four regions were divided into 70 small possessions (tumens), headed by temniks.

Uluses were divided into smaller possessions, also called uluses. The latter were administrative-territorial units of various sizes, which depended on the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion, foreman).

The city of Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan) became the capital of the Golden Horde under Batu; in the first half of the 14th century, the capital was moved to Saray-Berke (founded by Khan Berke (1255-1266) near present-day Volgograd). Under Khan Uzbek, Sarai-Berke was renamed into Sarai Al-Dzhedid.

Army

The overwhelming majority of the Horde army was the cavalry, which used the traditional tactics of fighting with mobile cavalry masses of archers in battle. Its core was heavily armed detachments, consisting of the nobility, the basis of which was the guard of the Horde ruler. In addition to the Golden Horde warriors, the khans recruited soldiers from among the conquered peoples, as well as mercenaries from the Volga region, Crimea and the North Caucasus. The main weapon of the Horde warriors was the bow, which the Horde used with great skill. Spears were also widespread, used by the Horde during a massive spear strike that followed the first strike with arrows. Of the bladed weapons, broadswords and sabers were the most popular. Crushing weapons were also widespread: maces, shestopers, coinage, klevtsy, flails.

Among the Horde warriors, lamellar and laminar metal shells were common, from the 14th century - chain mail and ring-plate armor. The most common armor was khatangu-degel, reinforced from the inside with metal plates (kuyak). Despite this, the Horde continued to use lamellar shells. The Mongols also used armor of the brigantine type. Mirrors, necklaces, bracers and greaves became widespread. Swords were almost universally replaced by sabers. From the end of the 14th century, guns appeared in service. Horde warriors also began to use field fortifications, in particular, large easel shields - chaparras. In field combat, they also used some military technical means, in particular, crossbows.

Population

Turkic (Kipchaks, Volga Bulgars, Khorezmians, Bashkirs, etc.), Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks, etc.), North Caucasian (Yases, Alans, Cherkasy, etc.) peoples lived in the Golden Horde. The small Mongolian elite very quickly assimilated among the local Turkic population. By the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. the nomadic population of the Golden Horde was designated by the ethnonym "Tatars".

The ethnogenesis of the Volga, Crimean, Siberian Tatars took place in the Golden Horde. The Turkic population of the eastern wing of the Golden Horde formed the basis of the modern Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Nogays.

Cities and trade

On the lands from the Danube to the Irtysh, 110 urban centers with an oriental material culture have been archaeologically recorded, which flourished in the first half of the 14th century. The total number of the Golden Horde cities, apparently, approached 150. The major centers of mainly caravan trade were the cities of Sarai-Batu, Sarai-Berke, Uvek, Bulgar, Khadzhi-Tarkhan, Beljamen, Kazan, Dzhuketau, Madzhar, Mokhshi, Azak ( Azov), Urgench and others.

The trading colonies of the Genoese in the Crimea (captainship Gothia) and at the mouth of the Don were used by the Horde to trade in cloth, fabrics and linen, weapons, women's jewelry, jewelry, precious stones, spices, incense, furs, leather, honey, wax, salt, grain , timber, fish, caviar, olive oil and slaves.

From the Crimean trading cities, trade routes began, leading both to southern Europe and to Central Asia, India and China. Trade routes leading to Central Asia and Iran followed the Volga. Through the Volgodonsk perevoloka there was a connection with the Don and through it with the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea.

Foreign and domestic trade relations were provided by the issued money of the Golden Horde: silver dirhams, copper puls and sums.

Rulers

In the first period, the rulers of the Golden Horde recognized the supremacy of the great kaan of the Mongol Empire.

Khans

Munke-Timur (1269-1282), the first Khan of the Golden Horde, independent of the Mongol Empire
There Menggu (1282-1287)
Tula Buga (1287-1291)
Tokhta (1291-1312)
Uzbek Khan (1313-1341)
Tinibeck (1341-1342)
Janibek (1342-1357)
Berdibek (1357-1359), the last representative of the Batu clan
Kulpa (August 1359-January 1360), impostor, posed as Janibek's son
Nauruz Khan (January-June 1360), impostor, pretended to be Janibek's son
Khizr Khan (June 1360-August 1361), the first representative of the Horde-Ejen family
Timur-Khoja Khan (August-September 1361)
Ordumelik (September-October 1361), the first representative of the Tuka-Timur clan
Kildibek (October 1361-September 1362), impostor, pretended to be Janibek's son
Murad Khan (September 1362-Autumn 1364)
Mir Pulad (autumn 1364-September 1365), the first representative of the Shibana clan
Aziz Sheikh (September 1365-1367)
Abdullah Khan (1367-1368)
Hassan Khan (1368-1369)
Abdullah Khan (1369-1370)
Muhammad Bulak Khan (1370-1372), under the regency of Tulunbek Khanum
Urus Khan (1372-1374)
Circassian Khan (1374-early 1375)
Mohammed Bulak Khan (beginning 1375-June 1375)
Urus Khan (June-July 1375)
Mohammed Bulak Khan (July 1375-late 1375)
Kaganbek (Aibek Khan) (late 1375-1377)
Arabshah (Kary Khan) (1377-1380)
Tokhtamysh (1380-1395)
Timur Kutlug (1395-1399)
Shadibek (1399-1407)
Pulad Khan (1407-1411)
Timur Khan (1411-1412)
Jalal ad-Din Khan (1412-1413)
Kerimberdy (1413-1414)
Chocre (1414-1416)
Jabbar-Berdi (1416-1417)
Dervish Khan (1417-1419)
Ulu Muhammed (1419-1423)
Barak Khan (1423-1426)
Ulu Muhammed (1426-1427)
Barak Khan (1427-1428)
Ulu Muhammed (1428-1432)
Kichi-Mohammed (1432-1459)

Beklarbeki

Notes

DOCUMENTS->GOLDEN HORD->LETTERS GOLDEN HORDE KHANS (1393-1477)->TEXT
Grigoriev A.P. The official language of the Golden Horde of the XIII-XIV centuries.//Turkological collection 1977. M, 1981. S.81-89. "
Tatar encyclopedic dictionary. - Kazan: Institute of the Tatar Encyclopedia of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, 1999. - 703 p., illus. ISBN 0-9530650-3-0
Faseev F. S. Old Tatar business writing of the 18th century. / F. S. Faseev. - Kazan: Tat. book. ed., 1982. - 171 p.
Khisamova F.M. Functioning of the Old Tatar business writing of the 16th-17th centuries. / F. M. Khisamova. - Kazan: Kazan Publishing House. un-ta, 1990. - 154 p.
Written Languages of the World, Books 1-2 G. D. McConnell, V. Yu. Mikhalchenko Academy, 2000 Pp. 452
III International Baudouin Readings: I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay and Modern Problems of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics: (Kazan, May 23-25, 2006): works and materials, Volume 2 Pages. 88 and pp. 91
Introduction to the study of Turkic languages Nikolai Aleksandrovich Baskakov Higher. school, 1969
Tatar Encyclopedia: K-L Mansur Khasanovich Khasanov, Mansur Khasanovich Khasanov Institute of Tatar Encyclopedia, 2006 Pp. 348
History of the Tatar literary language: XIII-first quarter of the XX at the Institute of Language, Literature and Art (YALI) named after Galimdzhan Ibragimov of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, publishing house Fiker, 2003
http://www.mtss.ru/?page=lang_orda E. Tenishev The language of interethnic communication of the Golden Horde era
Atlas of the history of Tatarstan and the Tatar people M .: DIK Publishing House, 1999. - 64 p.: illustrations, maps. ed. R. G. Fakhrutdinova
Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries.
Golden Horde
Pochekaev R. Yu. Legal status Ulus Juchi in Mongol empire 1224-1269 . (indefinite) . - Library of the Central Asian Historical Server. Retrieved April 17, 2010. Archived from the original on August 23, 2011.
Cm.: Egorov V.L. Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries. - M.: Nauka, 1985.
Sultanov T. I. How the ulus Jochi became the Golden Horde.
Meng-da bei-lu (full description of the Mongol-Tatars) Per. from Chinese, introduction, comments. and adj. N. Ts. Munkueva. M., 1975, p. 48, 123-124.
W. Tizenhausen. Collection of materials relating to the history of the Horde (p. 215), Arabic text (p. 236), Russian translation (B. Grekov and A. Yakubovsky. Golden Horde, p. 44).