Mushrooms play an important role in nature and human life. But if you ask someone the question: “Are mushrooms animals or plants?”, Then not everyone will immediately answer it. Further in the article we will tell you what it is, what types of mushrooms are and why they are needed.
general description
Mushrooms are non-chlorophyll heterotrophic lower organisms, uniting more than one hundred thousand species. Among them you can find both meter giants and microscopic representatives.
The answer to the question asked above: "Are mushrooms animals or plants?" it can be argued that mushrooms do not belong to either the first or the second, but have several features in common with both one and the other. Mushrooms are united with the plant world by a fixed way of life, continuous growth, nutrition by substances dissolved in water, and the presence of a cell membrane. With animal similar properties in fungi is the absence of plastids and the content of chitin and glycogen in the cells. An individual property is the presence of a vegetative body, called mycelium or mycelium, consisting of filamentous processes - hyphae. Therefore, fungi act as a separate kingdom of living nature in the organic world on a par with the kingdoms of animals, plants and bacteria.
Mushrooms settle in various places - in humans, animals, on plants and their roots. According to the method of nutrition, they belong to decomposers - organisms that feed on dead organic residues, turning them into simple organic compounds.
History reference
The combination of both signs of the animal and plant world makes it possible to assume that the answer to the question: “Are fungi animals or plants?” is their origin, which originates from the ancestors of antiquity, who lived in the primary reservoirs. These were colorless primitive unicellular flagellar organisms without a clear division into the animal and plant worlds. Unfortunately, science cannot say for sure what was the origin of mushrooms and their further development.
The oldest found remains of mushroom ancestors date back to an age of about nine hundred million years, which falls on the Archean era. Extensive formation was marked by the Cambrian period of the Paleozoic era (six hundred million years ago), and the heyday fell on the Carboniferous period (three hundred million years ago).
A distinctive feature of the structure and activity of cap mushrooms is the formation of fruiting bodies by them, which are called mushrooms in the common people. They consist of hyphae, legs and caps, on the reverse side of which there are tubular holes or plates, defining subspecies. The tubular mushrooms include boletus, porcini, boletus and others, and the lamellar mushrooms, russula, chanterelles and others.
The purpose of the tubes and plates is the formation of millions of spores, which, under suitable conditions, germinate into the mycelium. The latter lengthens in the process of growth, begins to branch, increasing the number of cells and forming a network that looks like white mold on the ground and fallen leaves.
The type of nutrition of cap mushrooms is the absorption of substances dissolved in water from the soil and tree roots. In parallel with this process, fungi braid the plant and penetrate inside. Trees, in turn, through fungi also receive nutrition with moisture. This natural cohabitation is called symbiosis, and in the case of roots, mycorrhiza.
View - mold mushrooms
A large group of fungi, the reproduction of which also occurs by spores, but without the formation of large fruiting bodies. This is mold.
Such fungi develop mainly on food:
- Mucor is a fungus in the form of a fluffy whitish mold that forms spores inside balls - sporangia. The mycelium is not divided into cells, but has a multinuclear structure.
- Penicillium is a green mycelium divided into cells, forming in some places branching in the form of a brush with spore chains.
Usually these representatives of the kingdom of mushrooms should not be eaten, but they help in the fight against diseases in the form of medicines. From penicillium, for example, an antibiotic is produced - penicillin, which is used for various purulent and inflammatory diseases of the organs by suppressing the microorganisms that cause them.
View - yeast mushrooms
Yeasts are unicellular static organisms up to ten micrometers in size, having an oval or elongated shape. They do not form true mycelium. Inside the cells there is a nucleus with mitochondria, and the vacuoles accumulate organic and inorganic substances, the processes of oxidation and reduction take place in them with the accumulation of volutin inside the cells.
Yeast reproduction is vegetative, through budding or division. After repeated repetitions of the reproduction process, which forms short, weakly connected chains, sporulation occurs. It also contributes to the restriction of the supply of nutrients and oxygen.
Yeast settles on the remains of plants that contain carbohydrates, and on fruits. In an environment rich in sugars, yeast fungi cause alcoholic fermentation processes with the release of carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol. These enzymatic transformations involve a whole complex of enzymes in the process, releasing the energy needed by yeast cells to maintain life cycles.
Role in nature
Growing together with the roots of plants and trees, mushrooms form a symbiosis - a mutually beneficial cohabitation. Absorbing the proteins and sugar contained in the body of the host, at the same time the fungi receive solutes from the soil and transport them back to the host. As they grow, they become food for others.
The role of fungi in nature is invaluable. They take part in the circulation of substances, in soil-forming processes, in the rehabilitation of the planet, mineralizing dead remains, and are food for other plants and animals.
In human life, the benefits of mushrooms are expressed in the following:
- use for fattening animals;
- application in various fields (brewing, baking, winemaking, alcohol and sour-milk production);
- obtaining drugs in the pharmaceutical industry;
- use for pest control.
But the role of mushrooms in nature is reduced not only to positive aspects. Their negative effect is as follows:
- destroy buildings and products made of wood and plywood;
- can cause dangerous diseases in animals and humans (eye, skin and lung damage);
- corrode metals, paint coatings, lubricating oils;
- developing in plants for animal feed, they release toxic substances there.
Mushrooms: scientific classification
There is no unambiguous classification of this species, but there are gradations:
- by the type of dispute formation - are expressed in the ending of names recognized by international rules;
- by the nature and structure of the reproductive organs (oomycots and eumikots).
A small department of Oomikota includes classes:
- Oomycetes (Oomycetes) - an extensive group of seventy genera, living mainly in water, less often - on higher plants. They have both types of reproduction.
- Hyphochytriomicetes (Hyphochytriomycetes) - live in water and humid environments, inside algae and invertebrates.
Most of the mushrooms - the variety of mushrooms is amazing - belongs to the Eumikota department and is divided into five classes:
The article answers the question: "Are mushrooms animals or plants?", and also considers the classification of fungi and their role in the life of people and plants. But it is worth paying attention to precautions.
Mushrooms have long been used by humans in food, but everyone has long known that inedible mushrooms are deadly to humans and animals, so it is strictly forbidden to collect them, pick them up or eat them.
The villages still use the biological method of insect control: they leave a saucer with water, in which sugar and pieces of fly agaric are added, in places where flies and other insects accumulate. The latter die after drinking this water.
If traces of mold are seen on leftover food (bread, vegetables or fruits), it should be discarded and not eaten by yourself or fed to animals.
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Food products are a very good breeding ground for the development of mold fungi. At the same time, the growth of fungi affects the quality of the product, the health of the person consuming it, which can lead to infection and poisoning.
Whether the product will spoil and how quickly this happens depends on various factors. Internal product-specific factors include acidity, moisture, texture, nutrient availability, and the possible presence of natural antimicrobial agents. Of the external factors, the most important are temperature, relative humidity, and the presence of gases (carbon dioxide, oxygen).
Foods such as bread, jam, some fruits are primarily affected by fungi. The low acidity of the product causes the development of yeasts and molds (1).
Antimicrobial agents - phytoncides (from Greek phyton - plant and Latin caedo - kill), biologically active substances formed by plants that kill or inhibit the growth and development of other organisms (2).
The purpose of the study: to find out what effect phytoncides of spicy plants have on the growth and development of mold fungi.
Study the literature on the topic;
To lay experience in growing mold and observe how spicy plants affect the activity of fungi;
Draw conclusions from the results of the study.
The object of the study is mold fungi, the subject of the study is the effect of phytoncides of spicy plants on mold activity.
The relevance of the study lies in expanding the list of means of combating mold fungi at home and using plants that we grow in household plots for this.
Hypothesis: I assume that different types of spice plants differently affect the growth and development of mold.
Research methods:
Bread mold experiment: I took 5 slices of rye bread, sprinkled them with a little water and placed one slice of bread in a separate numbered plastic container on a damp cloth;
I placed the laid experience on the window above the battery;
When the prepared pieces of bread were covered with mold, I took spicy plants (dill, parsley, onion, garlic, horseradish), chopped them (separately) into a homogeneous “gruel”, processed 5 more pieces of bread with this mixture and placed one in each container, where there is already moldy bread;
The observed results were recorded in a diary of observations;
Important steps in the experiment were photographed;
Statistical processing of the obtained results.
In conducting the study, my mother, Sapronova Svetlana Anatolyevna, provided me with methodological assistance and moral support, for which I am very grateful to her.
I. Literature review
1.1. A variety of mold fungi spoiling products
Mold fungi, microscopic fungi that form characteristic deposits (moulds) on the surface of organic substrates (food products). They belong to various systematic groups: zygomycetes (mucor), imperfect fungi (aspergillus, penicillium, trichoderma).
Molds are characterized by abundantly developing aerial mycelium. Fungi cause food spoilage. They are widely distributed in the soil, destroy organic residues and participate in their mineralization.
Mucor (mucor), a genus of fungi of the order of mucorales (mucorales) of the class of zygomycetes. On top of single colorless sporangiophores (up to 10 cm long), one sporangium develops (up to 180 microns in diameter). The shell of a mature sporangium, consisting of callose, dissolves easily in the presence of moisture , releasing several thousand multinucleated immotile sporangiospores. During the sexual process, two branches of one (in homothallic species) or different (in heterothallic species - most fungi) mycilia merge, forming a diploid zygote, which germinates with a short germ hypha with germinal sporangium. The sporangiospores formed after the reduction fission of the nuclei give rise to a new generation. About 60 species. Develop on organic residues of plant origin, food. Axomycetes (ascomycetus), marsupials. Thallus is represented by a well-developed multicellular mycelium, in some in the form of single budding or dividing cells. Reproduction is sexual (marsupial stage), asexual (conidia) and vegetative. As a result of the sexual process, which proceeds differently in different ascomycetes, asci, or bags, arise. The class Ascomycetes is divided into three subclasses: fungi
(asci are formed directly on the mycelium), euascomycetes (asci in fruiting bodies - cleistothecia, perithecia, apothecia) and loculoascomycetes (asci are formed on ascostromes in special depressions - loculae). Most are saprotrophs that live in the soil, on substrates of organic origin, and on food products.
Aspergillus (aspergillus), a genus of imperfect fungi of the hyphomycete class. The developmental cycle is dominated by the conidial stage. Saprotrophs are common. Many aspergillus form molds (green, black) on food.
The material of this chapter reveals the biological features of mold fungi and shows their diversity. This is necessary for a correct understanding of the object of study.
1.2 Spicy plants
Spices are plants whose organs (leaves, roots, fruits, rhizomes) contain aromatic or island flavor substances. Their beneficial properties are determined by a complex chemical composition, which contains a lot of organic acids, essential oils, phytoncides, glycosides, vitamins and other biologically active substances.
Currently, more than 200 species of spicy plants are known. Roots (horseradish), rhizomes (calamus), bulbs (garlic, onion), unopened flower buds (cloves), inner bark of an evergreen plant (saffron), all green mass (dill, Appendix 1, photo 1), tarragon are used as spices. , leaves (laurel), fruits (red pepper), dried seeds (mustard).
Spicy plants of central Russia are aromatic herbs: anise, cumin, celery, coriander, parsley (Appendix 1, photo 5), parsnip, lemon balm, basil, marjoram, mint, thyme, mustard, tarragon.
Local spicy herbs occupy an important place in the pantry of nature and are very beneficial for health. Most of them are phytoncidal plants, that is, plants that kill not only bacteria, but also fungi and protozoa of animal origin. This is primarily onion (Appendix 1, photo 2), garlic (Appendix 1, photo 3), horseradish (Appendix 1, photo 4).
This chapter gives the concept of "spicy plants", shows what parts of plants a person uses, this is necessary to disclose the subject of research.
Attachment 1
Dill(anethhum), a genus of annual (rarely biennial) herbs of the umbrella family. Young plants in the rosette phase are used as an aromatic seasoning. Adult plants in the seed formation phase are used as the main type of spice in pickling and pickling vegetables and in the confectionery industry.
The leaves and seeds of dill contain an essential oil, which contains terpene derivatives (carvone, limonene), which give the food a peculiar persistent flavor. Fresh dill contains a lot of vitamin C, carotene, vitamins B1, B2, PP, as well as calcium, phosphorus, and iron salts.
Onion(allium), a genus of biennial and perennial herbaceous plants of the onion family. The leaves are flat or fistulate. The flowers are small, stellate or bell-shaped in spherical inflorescences. The fruit is a box.
At the beginning of growth, onion leaves are eaten, then young onions (heads) are used, and later - mature bulbs. Onions are valued for their high dry matter content (10-20%), including sugars - 7-10%, protein 2-3%, a significant amount of various mineral salts, vitamins and essential oils with bactericidal properties. Essential oils give the onion a sharp taste, a peculiar smell.
Garlic(Allium sativum), a perennial plant of the onion genus. Homeland - South Asia. Varieties differ in color, number (2-50) and size of small bulbs, that is, cloves. Propagated by underground and aerial bulbs.
Valuable food plant. It has been known in culture for several millennia BC, it was cultivated in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome.
Horseradish(Armoracia), a genus of perennial herbaceous plants of the cruciferous family. The leaves are large. The fruit is a convex pod. Cultivated for the sake of long thick rhizomes. It reproduces vegetatively - through the formation of adnexal buds on the rhizomes.
Horseradish releases a lot of phytoncides and has a strong antimicrobial effect.
Parsley(Petroselinum), a genus of annual and biennial herbs of the umbrella family. Cross pollinated plant. It exists in two varieties - root and leaf. Stem 50-100 cm high, leaves twice and thrice dissected, greenish-yellow, small flowers. The fruits are small, greyish-green, two seedlings, bitter in taste. Ancient culture of the Mediterranean.
Its value for human health is associated with a high content of carotene and vitamin C, as well as minerals. In terms of potassium content, parsley ranks first among all spices.
Practical part
2.1. The results of monitoring the development of mold fungi
4 days before the start of the main experiment, a wet wipe was placed in five plastic containers. She placed 5 slices of rye bread in each container and sprinkled everything with water, closed the containers with a lid and placed them on the window above the heating radiator. On the second day, a greenish-white mold began to appear on the bread. Another 2 days passed, all the pieces of bread were covered with mold.
The next stage of the study was: I took 5 more slices of bread, on which I applied a thin layer of "gruel" made from chopped plants - garlic, dill, parsley, onion, horseradish. In the following days, she made observations and recorded the results in the diary of observations (table No. 1).
Table 1
Observation results
|
Experience Changes |
||
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Experiment bookmark |
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Mold began to appear on all pieces of bread |
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All pieces of bread are completely covered with mold, more than 50% of the surface |
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All pieces of bread are completely covered with mold. In each container I placed pieces of bread with a “gruel” of crushed spicy plants applied to them. |
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Continued observation |
|
parsley |
||||||
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Without changes |
Without changes |
Without changes |
Without changes |
Without changes |
||
|
Without changes |
Mold appeared in separate foci closer to the edge |
Mold appeared on the edge of the piece |
Without changes |
Without changes |
||
|
Without changes |
Separate mold foci have merged and occupy 40% of the surface |
Mold occupies more than 50% |
Without changes |
Without changes |
||
|
Mold has appeared |
Without changes |
Without changes |
||||
|
Mold occupies about 25% of the surface |
Mold occupies 100% of the surface |
The mold began to change color to a darker gray |
Mold appeared on two edges of a piece of bread |
Without changes |
||
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Mold takes up half the surface of a piece of bread |
Sporulation has begun |
Mold occupies almost 30% of the surface |
Mold has appeared |
|||
|
The mold has begun to darken and takes up 100% of the surface |
Sporulation has begun |
Mold occupies more than half of the surface |
Mold grows and takes up about 15% of the surface |
|||
|
Sporulation has begun |
Mold occupies almost the entire surface |
Mold occupies about 35% of the surface |
||||
|
Mold occupies 50% of the surface |
||||||
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Mold has started to darken |
Mold covers 80% of the surface |
|||||
|
Sporulation has begun |
Mold occupies the entire surface |
|||||
|
Without changes |
||||||
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The mold has turned greenish gray |
||||||
|
Sporulation has begun |
Conclusions:
All plant samples taken for the experiment are able to slow down the development of mold;
Parsley has the weakest phytoncidal properties - the earliest mold appeared on processed bread and developed until the surface was completely covered in just 3 days (Appendix 2, Chart 1);
Horseradish has the strongest bactericidal properties, since the mold appeared only on the 5th day and its development went on for 10 days (Appendix 2, Chart 1);
Dill could not restrain the development of mold for a long time, the development lasted 4 days; - garlic and onions have quite strong phytoncidal properties, since the mold appeared on the 3rd and 4th day in small foci, its development was slow (from 6 to 9 days) (Appendix 2, graph2).
Development cycle of mold fungi on bread treated with parsley and horseradish
Development cycle of molds on bread treated with garlic and onions
Conclusion
The work performed showed that phytoncides found in spicy plants have their effect on the development of mold fungi. The protective role of phytoncides is manifested not only in restraining the rate of development of fungi, but also in suppressing their reproduction. The mold fungi that develop in the experiment on bread are classified as saprotrophs in terms of nutrition. These are heterotrophic organisms that use organic compounds of dead organisms for nutrition. This biological feature of mold poses a danger to products that a person lays in storage.
In the course of the study, spicy plants were studied, which are common in central Russia and in Lebedyan.
After processing the results of the experiments, I came to the following conclusions:
Plants treated for the study are able to inhibit mold growth;
Parsley has the weakest phytoncidal properties; it took 3 days to completely cover the surface of a piece of bread;
Horseradish has the strongest bactericidal property, since the mold appeared only on the fifth day and its development went on for 10 days;
Dill was not able to restrain the development of mold for a long time, it took 4 days to completely cover the surface of a piece of bread;
Garlic and onions have quite strong phytoncidal properties, since the mold appeared only on the 3rd and 4th day in small foci, its development was slow (from 6 to 9 days).
Based on the studies carried out, recommendations were made on the use of spicy plants to combat and curb the growth and development of mold fungi at home:
To prevent the appearance of mold fungi in the refrigerator, you can evenly spread a few cloves of garlic or an onion head cut into two parts evenly between the products (closed hermetically);
Put 2-3 cloves of garlic in the bread box to avoid quick spoilage of bread;
Horseradish releases a lot of phytoncides and has an antimicrobial effect, so horseradish is sometimes used to prevent food spoilage during storage, sprinkling them with a crushed mass of roots (5).
If spicy plants secrete phytoncides and have an antimicrobial effect, then they can be used to prevent airborne diseases (such as ODS, influenza ...), for this, more spicy plants should be included in the diet during epidemics. In the premises, lay out fresh peeled garlic cloves, cut onion heads, chopped horseradish roots and change them as necessary.
The hypothesis put forward: different types of spicy plants differently affect the growth and development of mold, turned out to be true.
Appendix 2
Photo 1
19.01.2017
Beginning of the experiment
Photo 2
20.01.2017
All the pieces of bread are moldy
Photo 3
20.01.2017
Laying pieces of bread smeared with gruel from spicy plants
Photo 4
Photo 5
Literature
1. Aizenman B.E., Smirnov V.V., Bondarenko A.S. Phytoncides and antibiotics of higher plants. K.: 1984.
2. Biological encyclopedic dictionary / Ch. ed. M.S. Gilyarov; Redcall. : A.A. Baev, G.G. Vinberg, G.A. Zavarzin and others - 2nd ed., corrected. - M.: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1989. - 864 p.
3. Netrusov A.I., Microbiology: a textbook for students. Higher Proc. Establishments / - Kotova I.B. M, : Publishing Center "Academy", 2006. - 252 p.
4. Nikitochkina T.D. From the history of spice plants. 2nd ed., M .: "Fine Arts", 1986.
5. Shuin K.A. 70 types of vegetables in the garden. Mn. : Urajay, 1978. - 159 p.
Influence of mold fungi on the development of plants treated with microalgae suspension
Recently, the number of publications devoted to the study of the beneficial properties of extracts and individual components from seaweed has increased. Biologically active substances from algae are used for the preparation of various biological products.
Marine and freshwater algae have a wide spectrum of antimicrobial activity against pathogenic viruses, bacteria, protozoa and fungi.
Algal fertilizer cannot replace mineral fertilizer. Like the use of other microbial preparations, algalization can only be considered as an additional method of increasing the yield, based not only on obtaining additional nitrogen, but also on the stimulating effect of algae. Perhaps the greatest effect of algalization will give on well-cultivated soils.
The symbiosis of algae with various soil bacteria has been well studied by many researchers. But the effect of algae on inhibiting the growth of pathogenic fungi that cause seed mold has not been studied.
Materials and methods. The main objects of research were seeds of cereals (oats, wheat), beans and soybeans, cultures of green microalgae. The following methods were used during the work.
Soil sterilization method. To conduct research on the influence of various limiting factors on the growth and development of cultivated plants, sterile soil was prepared. The soil was sifted through a sieve twice. 200 g of sifted soil was poured into a clean porcelain crucible with a volume of 0.5 l. The crucible was placed in a thermostat at 1200C for 45 minutes. The calcined soil was placed to cool in a sterile room.
Preparation method. For analysis, we prepare the required amount of microalgae culture in a transparent five-liter container. We prepare the Myers nutrient medium according to the scheme, sterilize the medium in a water bath. Pass the culture of microalgae into a cooled nutrient medium. Cultivation is carried out in diffused daylight and a temperature of 250C for 7 days. We mix the finished storage culture with adsorbents, for example, bentonite, vermiculite, sawdust.
Sampling method for seeds and beans. Seeds of cereals and legumes are checked visually for damage. Sampling clean, smooth seeds and beans. The sample is lowered into the water for the presence of voids. The selected samples, depending on the experiments, were kept for a day in a zero nutrient solution and a culture of microalgae.
Method for preparing percentage solutions. During the experiments, solutions of acids, alkalis, and synthetic detergents were prepared. To prepare a solution of a given percentage concentration, first calculate the amount of substance required to dissolve in a certain mass of solvent. The method of preparation of the solution in this case depends on the state of aggregation of the solute and the density of the solvent. If the substance to be dissolved is a solid, then before preparing the solution, it is necessary to make sure that it does not contain adsorbed moisture. To do this, the substance is brought to constant mass by heating. If the solute is a crystalline hydrate, then water of crystallization should be taken into account in the calculations. When preparing solutions from crystalline hydrates, it is necessary to know exactly the water content in a substance, since an error in determining its mass will entail an error in the concentration of the prepared solution. When water is used as a solvent, the amount of water needed to prepare the solution can be measured using measuring utensils - a cylinder, a glass, a beaker. If a solution of percentage concentration is prepared from an aqueous solution of another substance, then when calculating the amount of water for preparing the solution, it is necessary to take into account the amount of solvent contained in the solute. In studies, 0.5%, 1%, 3%, 5% solutions were prepared.
To study the possibility of a suspension of microalgae to suppress the growth of mold fungi, an enrichment culture of mold fungi was additionally grown. Sterile soil was filled with mushroom culture, then beans and soybeans were planted. The research was carried out for seven days. On the third day of the study, the beans in the control variant were completely covered with mold, while in the experimental variant, mold was about 20%.
In the control variant, the beans were covered with mold, the peel was wrinkled, the primordia of the roots were thin, with a tendency to dry out. In the experimental version, the mold is not significant, the skin of the bobo is smooth and shiny, the roots are dense and fleshy. Also, mold affects the germination of seeds, that is, it inhibits the growth of plants (table 1). For example, on the 3rd day of the study, there were already 3 shoots in the experiment, while in the control there were only 2. By the end of the study, the difference in germination already differed by 20%.
Table 1. Germination of legumes when treated with mold
According to the results of the study, it became known that the effect of mold fungi on seeds treated with a suspension of algae is minimal, that is, about 5 infected seeds out of a hundred.
Bibliographic list
- 1. Arkhipov / Blue-green algae in the diets of animals and birds.// Animal Nutrition and Forage Production. - 2006. - No. 7. - P. 30-35
- 2. Nagorskaya VP Reunov AV, Lapshin LA, Ermakov IM, AO Influence of the Barabanov c/c-carrageenan from red algae Tichocarpus crinitus on the development of local infection induced by tobacco mosaic virus in leaves of tobacco varieties Xanthi - NC // Math . Russian Academy of Sciences. Ser. biol. - 2008. - No. 3. - S. 360-364.
The school stage of the All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in ecology
2014-2015 academic year
Grade 9
TASKS
Exercise 1. You are offered ten tasks in the form of judgments, with each of which you must either agree or reject. The maximum number of points is 10 (one point for each correct answer). Record your choice of yes or no answer in the answer matrix.
1. The rule of the ecological pyramid defines a progressive increase in 10 times the mass of each subsequent link in the food chains.
2. The same living organisms can be part of several food chains at once.
3. There is no self-regulation in the agrocenosis.
4. Water is the most populated habitat.
5. The ability of a species to adapt to changing environmental factors is called ecological lamellarity.
6. If oxygen does not play a significant role for the soil habitat, then for the water it is the most important environmental factor.
7. In the tundra, the anthropogenic influence is most noticeable.
8. To increase the fish catch in the northern seas, it is necessary to increase the diameter of the cells of the fishing gear.
10. Reindeer protect taiga forests from fire.
Task 2. You are offered twenty test tasks that require you to choose one correct answer out of four possible ones. The index of the answer that you consider the most complete and correct, indicate in the answer matrix. Each correct answer is worth 1 point, the maximum number of points is 20.
11. The influence of plants, animals, fungi and bacteria on living organisms in an ecosystem is called factors: A) abiotic; B) biotic; B) anthropogenic; D) limiting.
12. The juicy fruits of some plants are eaten by animals. In this case, the seeds not only spread in various places, but even increase their germination capacity under the influence of gastric juice. Similar relationships between plants and animals are called: A) endozoochory; B) exozoochory; B) synoikia; D) companionship.
13. In a symbiotic relationship are: A) a lion and a jackal; B) shark and fish stuck; C) sundew and fly; D) fish and earthworm.
14. Who are the main energy suppliers in the pine forest? A) bacteria B) proteins; B) pines; D) insects.
15. In what direction are food and energy connections carried out?
A) consumers - producers - decomposers; B) decomposers - consumers - producers;
C) reducers - producers - consumers; D) producers - consumers - decomposers.
16. For which plant communities in the north of Europe is periodic burning out a necessary condition for existence? A) pine forest B) peat bog; C) floodplain meadow; D) thickets of heather.
17. The most accurate indicators (indicators) of the state of the environment are species that: A) exist in a wide range of environmental conditions; B) require strictly defined conditions of existence; C) adapt to the influence of anthropogenic factors; D) show plasticity to the action of environmental factors.
18. Weakened, diseased trees emit substances that attract insect pests, that is, the former have on the latter: A) an attractive effect; B) repellent action; C) allelopathic action;
D) homeopathic action.
20. Stable populations are characterized by numbers that: A) changes irregularly with a large amplitude of oscillations; B) is at the level of the supporting capacity of the medium; C) changes regularly depending on environmental conditions; D) is determined by the speed of migration processes.
21. The historical stages of the relationship between man and nature can be built in the following sequence: A) "Neolithic Revolution", "Paleolithic Revolution", "Industrial Revolution"; "green revolution";
B) "Paleolithic Revolution", "Green Revolution", "Neolithic Revolution", "Industrial Revolution";
C) "industrial revolution", "green revolution", "paleolithic revolution", "neolithic revolution";
D) "Paleolithic Revolution", "Neolithic Revolution", "Industrial Revolution", "Green Revolution";
22. What is the shape of the "survival curve" in mammals? A) concave down; B) vertical; B) convex up; D) horizontal .
23. What is the name of the state of the biosphere when its development is controlled by the human mind? A) the astrosphere B) noosphere; B) lithosphere; D) nanosphere.
24. The best way to restore open pits can be: A) filling them with water; B) plowing slopes; C) planting cultivated plants on the slopes;
D) filling with sand.
25. The return of biogenic elements to the global circulation of substances is carried out mainly: A) producers B) decomposers; B) industrial enterprises; D) consumers.
26. Choose the correct sequence of components of the detrital food chain:
A) otter-phytoplankton-carp-daphnia; B) otter-phytoplankton-daphnia-crucian carp; C) daphnia-phytoplankton-carp-otter; D) phytoplankton-daphnia-carp-otter.
27. The principle of G.F. Gause can be applied in the case of: A) descriptions of the relationship between black and red cockroaches; B) determination of the type of specially protected natural area; C) calculation of the diet of farm animals; D) modeling of erosion processes .
28. Who coined the term "population"? A) G. De Vries; B) I.I. Schmalhausen; C) W. Johannsen; D) A. Volterra.
29. Correctly drawn up scheme of secondary ecological succession: A) fire → lichens and algae → grasses and shrubs → spruce forest → birch forest → oak forest; B) rocks → lichens and algae → mosses and ferns → grasses and shrubs → birch forest → mixed forest → spruce forest; C) felling → grasses and shrubs → birch forest → mixed forest → spruce forest; d) wasteland → mosses and ferns → grasses and shrubs → mixed forest → birch forest → oak forest.
30. Specify the correct food chain: A) clover - hawk - bumblebee - mouse; B) clover - bumblebee - mouse - hawk; C) bumblebee - mouse - hawk - clover; D) mouse - clover - bumblebee - hawk.
Task 3. It consists in choosing the correct answer “yes” or “no” with a written justification for your choice. You must not only choose and indicate the correct answer in the matrix, but also justify it in writing, based on your knowledge and experience. It consists of three tasks, each of which is estimated at a maximum of 3 points (the maximum number of points is 9).
31. Is it possible to preserve the steppe ecosystem if all ungulates are exterminated in it?
32. Three related plant species live in one area - non-poisonous, slightly toxic and poisonous. The same phytophages feed on them (non-poisonous and weakly toxic). Is it possible for all three plant species to survive?
33. Is any living organism capable of inhabiting the entire surface of the planet?
Task 4. Solve the test problem. The task consists in choosing the only correct answer from the four proposed with a written justification for your choice. You must not only choose and indicate the correct answer in the matrix, but also justify it in writing, based on your knowledge and experience. The maximum number of points is 4 points.
34. The concept of topical connections was introduced by V. K. Beklemishev, meaning by them the influence of some organisms on others through a change in various abiotic factors. An example of topical ecological links is:
A) the presence of long hair, outgrowths on the fingers of the thin-toed jerboa - an inhabitant of sandy deserts; B) the colonization by insects of "pools" formed due to the accumulation of rainwater in the bases of the leaves of plants of the bromeliad family; C) sundew digestion of insects falling on the surface of its leaves; D) fixing moving sands with the help of psammophilous plants (willow-sheluga, kandym, and other shrubs).
Response Matrix
Grade 9
FULL NAME. Class
Task 1. [10 points].
| № | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| Correct. answer "Yes" | ||||||||||
| Correct. the answer is "No" |
Task 2. [20 points].
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
|
| 11-20 | ||||||||||
| 21-30 |
Task 3.
31. Choose and justify your answer.
32. Choose and justify your answer.
33. Choose and justify your answer.
Task 4.
34. Choose and justify the only correct answer.
Response Matrix
Grade 9
Maximum 43 points.
Task 1. [10 points].
| № | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| Correct. answer "Yes" | + | + | + | + | + |
|||||
| Correct. the answer is "No" | + | + | + | + | + |
Task 2. [20 points].
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
|
| 11-20 | b | a | b | in | G | G | b | a | b | b |
| 21-30 | G | in | b | in | b | G | a | in | in | b |
Task 3.
31. No, because phytomass, which was constantly absorbed by ungulates, will immediately begin to accumulate. The steppe will overgrow and turn into forest-steppe communities.
32. Yes, animals will eat all the plants evenly, and some of them will die. Plants will be preserved in this way. Most likely, non-poisonous and slightly toxic species are similar to the poisonous species. In addition, phytophages will develop a conditioned reflex and only young individuals will eat these species.
33.
No, because an unlimited growth in numbers leads to the depletion of environmental resources, and, accordingly, to a decrease in the number of the population itself or to its death.
| Answer options | Index | score |
| Wrong answer selected | 0 points |
|
| Correct answer selected | 1 point |
|
| Not really | justification. | 0 points |
| | 1 point |
|
| | 2 points |
Task 4.
34
.
Answer B) is correct. The structural features of the leaves of plants of the bromeliad family create the physical conditions necessary for the habitat of other organisms - insects. Thus, there is a topical connection here.
| Answer options | Index | score |
| Wrong answer selected | 0 points |
|
| Correct answer selected | 2 points |
|
| There is no substantiation of the answer or an erroneous one is formulated justification. | 0 points |
|
| Partial (incomplete) substantiation of the answer (without the use of environmental laws, rules, patterns, the content of the concepts given in the answer is not considered, there is no logic in the reasoning; at the same time, there are no errors indicating serious gaps in the knowledge of ecology). | 1 point |
|
| Full justification of the answer (using environmental laws, patterns, the content of the concepts given in the answer is considered; the justification is logical) | 2 points |
And yeast is used for the production of food, medicines. Some fungi cause significant harm to humans: they cause spoilage of food products, destroy wood and leather products. Parasitic fungi cause various diseases of plants, animals and humans.
The role of fungi in the cycle of substances
Often on trees there are tinder fungi, or tinder fungi. Tinder fungus spores get into wounds on the bark of trees and germinate, forming mycelium. It penetrates the wood and feeds on the organic matter of its cells. Affected trees become brittle, rotten. A few years after the infection of the tree with a tinder fungus, its fruiting bodies appear on the trunk (Fig. 51). They are hoof-shaped and usually very hard. Perennial fruit bodies of tinder fungi can sometimes reach 0.5-1 m in diameter. On the underside of the fruiting body, millions of spores ripen in small tubules.
To prevent infection with polypore fungi, it is necessary to protect trees from damage to the bark and breakage of branches, and to knock down and burn fruiting bodies.
Many types of hat mushrooms are eaten as a valuable product. Some species are grown in artificial conditions on special nutrient substrates: straw-based composts (champignons), wood-based (oyster mushrooms). Mushrooms are grown more often (Fig. 52), in second place is oyster mushroom. In France, black truffles are cultivated, in Japan and other countries - shiitake (Fig. 53).
Man has long used mushrooms in various sectors of the economy. Winemaking and baking - the most ancient crafts - would be impossible without yeast fungi. During baking, the carbon dioxide released by the yeast raises the dough and makes it porous and fluffy. Certain types of mold fungi are used to produce cheeses (Roquefort and Camembert).
Fungi in the microbiological industry
Some types of penicillium are widely used in the microbiological industry in the production of organic acids, vitamins and other valuable substances. Some types of mold fungi are used to obtain proteins, antibiotics, and drugs for pest control of agricultural plants.