- (also known as "vulgar Latin" and folk Latin; lat. sermo vulgaris) a colloquial variety of the Latin language, common in Italy, and later in other provinces of the Roman Empire. It is folk Latin (and not ... ... Wikipedia
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Latin language (Latin)- (lat. lingua latina) The language of the Italic group of the Indo-European family (Italic languages), originally in the region of Latium (Latium) on the Apennine Peninsula. The colloquial variety of Latin gave rise to the Romance languages. Latin played ... ... Handbook of etymology and historical lexicology
Folk Latin- opposed lit. classical Latin colloquial form of lat. lang. The degree of expression of colloquial elements varies greatly in the surviving monuments depending on the societies, position and educational level of the author (language ... ... Dictionary of antiquity
Latin language- one of the Italian languages, the language of the ancient tribe of the Latins, who inhabited the region of Latium in the middle part of Italy with the center (from the 8th century BC) Rome. The gradual spread of the Latin language outside Rome and the displacement of other languages \u200b\u200bof ancient Italy ... ... Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary
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Ethnogenesis of the Romanian people- The problem of the origin (ethnogenesis) of Romanians is one of the most difficult problems of Romanian and world historiography. The difficulty of obtaining a reliable answer to the question of where and when the Romanians appeared lies in the scarcity of sources for early ... ... Wikipedia
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Volgar- Folk Latin, also known as "Vulgar Latin" and Folk Latin, Lat. sermo vulgaris is a colloquial variety of Latin spoken in Italy and later in other provinces of the Roman Empire. It is folk Latin (and ... Wikipedia
(Armavir interlocutor 186/10.X.2000)
There is an almost generally accepted opinion that Latin is a dead language, because the Roman Empire, where Latin was spoken, is long gone.
Indeed, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, in the 5th century, its language had to die, since the Eastern Empire (Byzantium) was the bearer of Greek culture. Generally speaking, this is exactly what happened. The spoken Latin language ceased to exist as such, and on the basis of its variants and other languages, the so-called "new languages" were formed: Italian, French, Spanish and other languages of the Romance group.
But where, then, did medieval Latin come from, in which hundreds of scientific works, theological works, as well as thousands of poems and poems were written? The fact is that the Latin language did not die completely. The literary form continued to exist and was successfully used for more than a thousand years as the language of official documents and literature, as well as the language of interethnic communication. However, Latin was not only written, but also spoken. In many educational institutions, lectures were given only in Latin, while divine services were held in the Western (Catholic) Church, and, of course, scientists spoke in Latin. Naturally, all this time the language continued to develop.
So this use of the literary Latin language was the reason for the revival of Latin in the truest sense of the word. We are talking about the emergence of colloquial variants (vulgar language) on the basis of a literary form that has been preserved for many centuries. And, of course, the Renaissance made its contribution, in which a massive return to antiquity began, including ancient languages and works written in them.
Now someone can say that all this was a long time ago, back in the Middle Ages, and then the era of the New Time came, when the French language dominated and, in general, they forgot about Latin. Indeed, the XVIII-XIX centuries. were a time of all kinds of innovations, and much of the old faded into the background. Latin was forced out of many areas of public activity. During this period, French and German literature developed rapidly.
Yes, that's right. But Latin continued to be studied in all more or less serious educational institutions. For example, in Paris there was even a so-called "Latin district", where all education was conducted in Latin. This testifies to the amazing vitality of the Latin language, in which immortal works were created, they continue to be read and translated to this day.
Today there is a movement to restore Latin as an international language, at least in science. International journals in Latin are published in different countries of the world, for example: MAS (France), MELISSA (Belgium), VOX LATINA (Germany) and others, dictionaries continue to be published, new original works are created, books are printed. Moreover, international conferences are held in Latin, dissertations are written, correspondence is maintained, and even radio stations operate. Latin is introduced in schools and gymnasiums, not to mention universities.
Well, now let's go back to the beginning of the article and think: is it possible to call a language dead, which for more than two thousand years has served as a means of international communication, on which literature is created and on which thousands of people around the world continue to communicate? - Not! Latin is still alive today, but it has become more than just a "living language", it has become a super-language that belongs to all who study it.
PEOPLE LATIN - a raz-go-vor-naya form of the la-tin-sko-th language, pro-ti-vo-pos-tav-len-naya his writing-men-noy-te-ra-tour -noy form.
The term “folk Latin” and the equal-valued term “vul-gar-naya la-tyn” (from the Latin vulgaris - simply-to-native) arose in connection with -zi with a question about pro-is-ho-zh-de-nii of ro-man languages. In the 15th century, L. Bru-ni, in a dispute about the pro-is-ho-zh-de-nii of the Italian language, you-said the idea that folk Latin, somehow Bru-ni-na-zy -val italian vulgar language, is-ko-no su-sche-st-vo-va-la next to written Latin. At the beginning of the 19th century, in connection with the appearance of a comparatively historical method of learning the Romance languages, folk Latin in Chi -na-et ras-smat-ri-vat-sya as their proto-language. In the course of the 19th century, the folk and written Latin of most scientists (G. Schu-hardt, German scientists A. Fuchs, G. Gröber, etc.) op-re-de- la-li like two different languages. At the end of the 19th century, this opinion was os-po-re-no M. Bon-net (France) and the Prague ling-wi-stom J. Mo-lem. They believed that folk Latin is ra-smat-ri-vae-my in its historical development in different areas of the Roman Empire colloquial Latin, on the basis of something, a literary language arose, in turn, exerting a known influence on colloquial speech.
The appearance of the concept of “folk Latin” is due to the fact that the Latin language is for-fix-si-ro-van only in writing (as vi-lo, li-te-ra-tur-noy) form and colloquial Latin re-chi can be judged mainly on the basis of oblique data. In this regard, the traditional method of describing folk Latin is reduced to the analysis of those phenomena that are not from-ra-same-we in literary language. At the same time, it’s sub-ra-zu-me-va-et-sya that it doesn’t describe the main lexical and grammatical fund of the language common to colloquial and literary speech ka.
Since “no-one ever created-on-tel-but didn’t write-sal on the national la-you-ni” (J. Mol), the main source who knows about her yav-la-et-sya method of re-con-st-hand-tion of lin-gwis-ti-che-sky. He gives the opportunity to restore pro-from-no-she-nie, verbal composition and grammatical features of colloquial speech chi. The data, based on this method, must be ve-ri-fi-qi-ro-vat-sya tek-hundred-mi. Written memories of the Latin language (with the exception of the pom-pey-sky over-pi-this, not-something-over-pi-this Ri-ma and , perhaps, speeches at will-but-from-pu-schen-ni-kov Tri-mal-chio-na in "Sa-ti-ri-ko-ne" Pe-tro-niya) not from-ra -zha-yut half-no-stee especially-ben-no-stey of colloquial speech.
The origins of folk Latin are ar-ha-ichnye texts, from-no-s-s-s-s to that period, when they haven’t yet folded -sya literary language, late texts, created then, when the influence of the literary language was os-la-be-lo, and texts, the genre of something obu-words-whether-va-et use-pol-zo-va-nie colloquial language. The first ones, except for ar-ha-ichnyh over-pi-this, include legal and sacral texts and pro-from-ve-de-niya you of a style, in the strength of its special-ci-fi-ki, preserving the ancient forms-mu-ly and the ancient expressions. To the second - a large number of over-sepulchral over-pi-this and, above all, christ-an-sky texts. To the third-them - co-media (especially ben-no Plav-ta) and atel-la-ny, sa-ti-ry, letters, special literature [for example, tract-tat Vit-ru-via “De-sya books about ar-khi-tek-tu-re” (“De architectura libri de-cem”; published in Russian in 1936, 3rd edition in 2005), “Mulomedicina Chironis” ( “Ve-te-ri-nar-noe art-kus-st-vo Hi-ro-na”), etc.]. Dr. source of information about colloquial speech - the works of Roman gram-ma-ti-kov (especially the so-called "Appendix Probi"), glosses and similarities (not-big com-men-ta-rii on the margins and between the lines of ru-ko-pi-si).
The pro-ble-ma of the dia-lect-no-sti of folk Latin has its own sides-n-kov and against-n-kov. G. Schu-hardt (“Vo-ka-lizm na-rod-noy la-ty-ni”, 1866-1868) Latin, and from the well-known single-ob-ra-zie of written sources explained you-ra-bo-tan-noy in the pre-de-lah of the Roman im-pe- rii one-but-about-different ma-not-swarm letters. He allowed the influence of local languages on the form of these dialects. In his opinion, would you be the most ancient dialects on the territory of Italy [southern, developing under the influence of wasps -to-th-language (see Italian languages), middle and northern, on some eyes-whether the influence of the Umbrian language and the Gaulish language], then form a dialect in Is-pa-nii, from someone-ro-go from-de-lill-sya dialect Lu-zi- ta-nii, later appeared the dialect of Gaul and the very next - Da-kii.
A special opinion about the role of the me-st-no-go sub-stra-ta you-said J. Mole, on-stay-vav-shiy on the fact that he has more knowledge -che-tion with mutually-de-acting-st-vie of languages, attached to one language group. According to this theory, the Latin language has an eye-for-whether it’s once more influenced by the Italian languages, and not the languages of the Roman provinces. This gi-po-te-zy is held by many ro-ma-ni-stas [M. V. Ser-gi-ev-sky, V. Vyaya-nyan-nen (Fin-lyan-dia), V. Pi-za-ni, etc.]. The study of the modern dialects of Italy (see the Italian-Jan language) and other ter-ri-to-rii of the former Roman Empire in the name of their use next-do-va-te-lyam [V. von Warth-burg, G. Rolfs (Germany), M. Kshe-pin-sky (Poland), G. Laus-berg (Germany), Pi-za-ni] make a conclusion that the basis of the modern Romance dialect is the dialect of folk Latin. On the unity-but-ob-ra-zie of written Latin pa-myat-nik-kov opi-ra-et-sya gi-po-te-for about the unity of folk Latin.
At the end of the 19th century, it came to-hold-zhy-va-li before-hundred-vi-te-li mla-do-gram-ma-tiz-ma, since re-zul-ta-you re- con-st-hand-tion at-in-di-whether to present-le-tion about su-sche-st-in-va-nii-no-go pro-that-ro-man-sko-go languages (Urromanisch). Their point of view is de-la-et by the American linguist G.F. end of the 8th century. In a different way, re-sha-et-sya the question of the chrono-logical framework of folk Latin. Bol-shin-st-in scientists (A. Fuchs, G. Gröber, G. Schu-hardt, J. Mol, M. V. Ser-gi-ev-sky, etc.) dyat folk Latin from ar-ha-ic Latin-ni. Mla-do-gram-ma-ti-ki consider that folk Latin is re-zul-tat development of the classical literary language, and from-but-si-whether it is yav-le-nie to the 1st century (V. Mey-er-Lub-ke). In-torture-ki per-rio-di-za-tion of folk Latin os-but-you-va-yut-sya on cultural-tur-but-is-to-rice (Fuchs) or lin-gwis-ti-che-sky (Shu-hardt) fact-to-rakh.
In folk Latin, from-me-cha-et-xia is a series of for-no-mer-no-stey, which have been developed in the Romance languages. Mu-zy-kal-noe blow-re-nie pre-ob-ra-zu-et-sya in di-na-mi-che-skoe, in some cases from me -nya-et-sya me-hundred hit-re-niya. In vo-ka-liz-me, pro-is-ho-dit stya-di-fton-gov, if-whether-che-st-vein-nye vowel differences change -sya ka-che-st-veins-ny-mi, appear-la-yut-sya 3 di-lectic areas, different-tea-sya-sis-te-ma-mi voice -nyh [Sar-di-nia, with a system of 5 vowels (i, e, a, o, u); Bal-Kan Peninsula, with a sys-te-my of 6 vowels (i, ẹ, Çe, a, o, u), and the rest of the regions of Ro-ma-nii, with system-te-my of 7 vowels (i, ̣e, Ç e, a, Ç o, ̣o, u)]. In connection with the iz-me-ne-ni-em ha-rak-te-ra ud-re-niya pro-is-ho-dit os-lab-le-nie without stressed vowels, with -in-dia-to-mix e and i, sometimes to you-pa-de-voice-no-go (in the middle syllables). In con-co-nan-tiz-me ut-ra-chi-va-et-sya h, pro-is-ho-dit re-hod u ̂ Ow>v, as well as i ^, e ̂ O j, pa-la-ta-li-za-tion of the group-py “consonant-vowel + j”, back-linguistic-lingual before the voices-we-mi before-not-hot -yes, oz-won-che-nie inter-ter-in-cal-deaf, up-ro-sche-ge-mi-nat, from-pa-de-ni-nech-nyh- vowels, ex-chez-no-ve-ne n re-ed s, in-yav-le-ne pro-te-ti-che-go (watchman Pro-te-for) voice-no-go , hour-you cases of epen-te-zy, me-ta-te-zy, anap-tik-sy (on-yav-le-niya inserting-no-voice-no-go), as-si- mi-la-tion and dis-si-mi-la-tion, ty-pich-nye for colloquial language.
In mor-fo-logia su-shche-st-vi-tel-noe ut-ra-chi-va-et ka-te-go-ryu of the middle kind, reduce-sha-et-sya to two or up to one number of pas-de-jes, is-che-za-yut 4th and 5th inclinations, ad-la-ga-tel-ny two and one-but- th windows-cha-nia. Pro-is-ho-dit for-me-on the ana-lytic steps-pe-ne compare-not-niya sin-te-ti-che-ski-mi (see Ana-litism in language-ko- knowledge, Sin-te-tizm). Hour-of-reb-la-yut-sya demonstrative places ille 'that one' and ipse 'himself' in ro-li, close to op-re-de-lyon-no- mu ar-tic-lu of ro-man languages; diff-fe-ren-qi-ru-yut-sya hit-my and non-hit-mye forms of personal and possessive places. Pro-is-ho-dit merger of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations, re-sto-nav-whether-va-et-sya root-not-howl vowel pro-from-water- no-go-go-la, is-che-za-yut from-lo-living go-go-ly, as well as syn-the-tic endings of the passive for-lo-ha. Difficult time-me-on the passive for-lo-ha in-lu-cha-yut new meanings. Ras-pro-country-n-is-sya per-fect on ui. Pe-ri-phrases with in-fi-ni-ti-vom in-lu-cha-yut mod-distant meaning (see Mod-distance).
In syn-so-si-se pro-is-ho-dit for-me-on pa-dezh-ny forms of pre-false-us-mi con-st-ruk-tion-mi, from me-na-et - in a row of words (“sub-ect + pre-di-kat + object” instead of “sub-ect + object + pre-di-kat”), more dis-simple -ra-nyon-ny-mi [in comparison with sub-chi-negative con-st-hand-tion-mi (see Pod-chi-non-nie)] become-but-vyat-sya- chi-native con-st-hand-tion (see So-chi-non-nie), more often in comparison with the classic la-you-new use-reb-la-et-sya in- di-ka-tiv (see Na-clo-not-nie) in pre-yes-accurate pre-lo-same-ni-yah, turnover accusativus cum infinitivo you-to- full pre-lo-zhe-mi with soy-for-mi quod 'what; in a way that' and quia 'in a way that', co-yuz si 'es-li' on-chi-na-et mentions-t-reb-lyat-sya in oblique-vein-nyh -pro-sah in the meaning of 'li', about-ra-zu-yut-sya new unions.
In the word-about-ra-zo-va-nii shi-ro-ko ras-pro-stra-nya-ut-sya diminutive suffix-sy, su-sche-st-vi-tel-nye with suffix-som -arius, adjectives with suffix-sa-mi -a̅nus and -o̅sus, in-ten-siv-nye gla-go-ly, gla-go-ly with not-how-ki-mi pri-stav-ka-mi. In the lek-si-ke, there is a large layer for-im-st-in-va-ny from the Greek language, pro-is-ho-dyat se-man-tic me-not-niya.
The history of the Latin language can be roughly divided into three periods: archaic, classical and late.
archaic period. It covers the period from the first written evidence of the Latin language to the end of the 2nd century BC. BC. This period is known from very few monuments (only a few religious hymns and some inscriptions found during excavations). Despite this, these documents testify to the difference between the archaic period of the language and its later forms, such as no doubling of consonants (mitat – mittat), ancient diphthongs (duenos - bonus), preservation S in position between vowels(iovesat - iurat), as well as final D (ted, med – te, me). By the middle of the III century. BC. the conquest of other Italian tribes by Rome is completed and its struggle with the Greek tribes in the south of the Apennine Peninsula begins, after which all of Italy is united under the rule of Rome. The speech of merchants, sailors, slaves and artisans is filled with Greek borrowed words - a reflection in Latin. The material that makes it possible to judge the state of the language at that time belongs to to the Greek poet Andronicus, the comedies of Plautus and Terence help to judge the literature of that time (how oratory began and how it initially relied on the Greek counterpart). Comedies are interesting because they have words and expressions from the oral language of that time, those linguistic features that were not developed in the art literature, but passed into the Romance languages.
classical period. Arbitrarily dated to the 1st c. BC. (81 - Cicero's speeches). 2nd century BC We call this period the "golden age of Latin", from Cicero to the death of Augustus (14 AD). Second half (I-II in AD) is called the "Silver Age”, TV-in refers to it Seneca, Apuleia and Petronius. With all the variety of stylistic means, the language does not change throughout the period. 'Cause this is the age literary and not linguistic. How is it different from the previous period? In the vast Roman state Latin supplanted all other languages, the dialects remained. A single literary language has developed that allows people from different areas to understand each other. Have a hand in shaping the language Caesar, Sallust, Titus Livius, Catullus, Cicero. A literary language is a language with a fixed standard of use, based on grammarians who differed from different authors only in stylistic features. In parallel, in the Roman Empire, the everyday language of the Romans and the vernacular of the lower strata of the population coexist. Different segments of the population - different features of vernacular. Cicero writes letters in a simple language, in everyday language, but literary works - in the classical. However, very little is known about the spoken language of that time, because. he was practically nowhere to be found.
Late period . Covers III-IV centuries. AD - the crisis of Rome and the division into Western and Eastern parts, fall of the Western Roman Empire(V century) and the formation of barbarian states on its territory. This entails colossal changes: schools are closed, art and literature are in decline, the language norm is losing its authority. However, for administrative functions, interpretation of documents, etc. (where Latin remains the norm) literate people are needed. Schools modeled on the imperial, where they studied Latin (for the aristocracy), remained, but over time they were supplanted by ordinary schools where teaching was conducted in the vulgar language - they belonged to the clergy. Most of the population was completely illiterate. The clergy considered thin literature to be pagan and forbade it. It taught Latin grammar and simplified the Latin language so that it could be understood by the common people. However, at this time, the difference between literary Latin and colloquial Latin becomes even greater. After all, the oral language is developing, and the literary language, although simplified, stands still. Over time, "mistakes" penetrate into fiction, they can be used to recreate oral speech. These errors occur by analogy of the archaic period: dropping n before s, shifting unstressed u and o, falling away of the final m.
Folk Latin - it is a general colloquial Latin language in all periods of its existence, with particular regard to all those innovations that appeared in the late period of its development, immediately preceding the period of formation of the Romance languages. However, the basis of the Romance languages is the lexical and grammatical fund of the Latin language , common to all his styles. The question of the unity of popular Latin is very acute, because written forms are stable, and the oral form is recorded in few places, but has regional differences. So V.Vanen sees in a number of Latin forms of Pompeian inscriptions the influence of the Oscan (fata - facta, isse, issus - ipse), J. Pearson highlights among the features of Latin in Gaul mixing v and b (laudavelis - laudabilis, vibus - vivus), t and d (aput-apud, reliquit - reliquid), the use of the genitive of time, the expansion of the meaning of the word filius(son > boy), infants(child, child), A. Carnoy in the Iberian inscriptions notes the nominative for as – ae, J.Mihaescu writes about shock closed transition o > u , as well as metathesis : iseplucrum-sepulcrum, indicating that these phenomena are typical of the Eastern Romanesque area.
When folk Latin developed into Romance languages is a mystery. Most scientists ( Schuhardt, Ascoli), believe that in the VI-VII centuries; Muller- that before VIII, only folk Latin was spoken.
Latin written and spoken has always been different. The phonetics of popular Latin in the late period was characterized by change of musical accent to dynamic. Vowels no longer differ in longitude and shortness , retaining only timbre differences while ĭ and ē merged into e, a ŭ and ō - in about: menus-minus, colomna-columna. It evoked in unstressed syllables frequent mixing i and e/ u and o : senatus non sinatus, ductrinae - doctrinae, as well as loss of an unstressed vowel (syncope): speculum non speclum. Diphthongs gone: Emilio - Aemilio, Phebus - Phoebus, Olo - Aulo.
Significant changes have taken place in consonatism of vernacular Latin of the late period . The most important of them - palatalization[k] before [e], [i], evidence of which is the confusion in writing ci and ti: terminaciones – terminationes(delimitations); weakening of intervocalic consonants - transition from deaf to voiced : pagatus-pacatus(peaceful), amadus-amatus(Darling); voiced into fricatives and the associated reverse phenomenon, betacism (transition v in b): plebes non pelvis, bibere-vivere; germinate into simple consonants: bela – bella. Of the other changes, the most general are dropping final consonants : ama, valia, peria (amat, valeat long live, pereat let it die) aspirate silence : orti-horti; dropping n before s : omnipotes–omnipotens(omnipotent); in combination s+consonant, at the beginning of the word appears the so-called " prosthetic vowel » ispose-sponsae(spouse). In morphology, there replacement of some syntactic forms with analytical ones . In the verb system, this is widespread use of paraphrases , noted back in the classical period, mainly with the verb habere, preceding the formation of a secondary periphrastic verbal system: nihil habeo ad te scribere, plura mandare habebam. In the name system, replacing cases with prepositional constructions , mixing case forms: Saturninus cum discentes (cum discentibus with students). It is also noted simplification of the declination system (reduction of five types to three): senati (senatus Senate), mani (manus arms), materiam caedere - materiam(forest to cut), the disappearance of the neuter category: balneus, caelus, vinus (balneum bath, caelum sky, vinum wine). Adjectives have development of descriptive forms for expressing degrees of comparison : plus dulce, plus felix, plus popularis, magis praeclarum(more clear). Becomes regular use of personal pronouns : sequimur nos ( we follow) ego stepeo(I'm numb). Paradigm of personal pronouns completed with the pronoun 3l – ille, illa, previously used along with other demonstrative pronouns: ille inquit(he said). The use of this pronoun before a noun is also approved to convey the general meaning of certainty: ille locus(place).
The syntax of vernacular Latin is characterized tendency towards direct word order , which is normal in the late period, when they become regular silence of final consonants, reduction of unstressed vowels in a final syllable . Word order begins to perform a grammatical function, compensating for the loss of case forms : itaque intravimus balneum(so, we entered the bathhouse). Syntactic turns accum inf and nominal kum inf are replaced by subordinate clauses: scis enim quod dedi epulum(you know I made a feast). Many impersonal forms of the verb are either falling into disuse ( supinum, participium futuri, gerundivum, Bud.), or limit the scope of their use ( partecipium praesentis, gerundium).
The lexical composition of the language changes due to a large number of neoplasms and shifts in the meaning of words. Gets widespread emotional vocabulary (words with diminutive, magnifying, pejorative, etc. coloring ), from constant use gradually losing its stylistic coloring: auris non oricla (auriculum- ear-ear). With the help of prefixes and suffixes, many new nouns, adjectives and verbs are formed: dormit ORIUM (bedroom), nat IVITAS (birth), culpa BILis (reprehensible), PRO longare(prolong). Many of these word formations are not recorded in Latin texts, but are recovered from Romance languages ( it.Usare, isp. usar, fr. user = la t. usare); (it. Arrivare, fr. Arriver = lat. adripare). Changes in the meaning of words occur due to the metaphor inherent in colloquial speech ( lat. testa- pot, it. testa, fr. tete head), expansion and limitation of meaning ( lat. camera- vault, it. camera, isp. camarafr. chambre- room), reduction in oral use of descriptive expressions ( lat. tempus hibernum- winter time, it. inverno, isp. invierno, fr. hiver, rum. iarnă- winter).
Widely used complex adverbs and prepositions : de retro (back), ab ante (front), de inter (inside), a foras (outside). There are numerous borrowings from the languages of neighboring peoples.
Folk Latin.
The concept of vernacular Latin.
Folk (vulgar) Latin - from lat. vulgus, "people". In the 19th century this term was understood as sermo vulgaris, the language of the social classes, opposed to the language of classical Latin writings. At the moment, most novelists believe that vernacular Latin is the common language of Latin in all periods of its existence, taking into account all the innovations that appeared in the late period of its development, preceding the period of the formation of the Romance languages. But when studying Romance languages, it is necessary to take into account all varieties of Latin and all aspects of linguistic material.
The problem of the unity of vernacular Latin
.
All texts are relatively uniform in terms of language. But different Romance languages developed from Latin, hence there were territorial differences. Rome conquered various territories, which led to the emergence of regional variants.
! Schuchardt: narlat is “the sum of language levels and dialects”.
The problem of the chronology of vernacular Latin
.
The decline of vernacular Latin and the emergence of Romance languages most likely took place in the period from the 6th to the 7th centuries. There is also an idea of the death of classical written Latin, which took place in the process of the degeneration of oral speech into Romance languages. As soon as the schools ceased their activities and the literary tradition broke off (the period of the collapse of the Roman Empire), the connection between the written language and oral speech was broken. Oral speech continues to develop, the written language freezes in development, loses its expressiveness.
Features of folk Latin
.
Differences from the literary norm are characteristic. Becoming regular, they find their development in the Romance languages.
Phonetics. Change of musical accent dynamic. Vowels cease to differ in length and brevity, retaining only timbre differences. i-short and e-long merge into e, u-short and o-long merge into o: minus à menus, columna à colomna. Frequent confusion of i and e, u and o: senatus à sinatus, doctrinae à ductrinae. There is also a loss of an unstressed vowel - syncopation: speculum à speclum. Diphthongs leave: Phoebus à Phebus.
Changes in consonantism are also significant. Patalization of k before e, i, as a result - confusion in the spelling of ci and ti: terminationes à terminaciones. Weakening of intervocalic consonants, transition of deaf to voiced: pacatus à pagatus. The transition of voiced to fricatives and the related betacism (transition of v to b): vivere à bibere. The transition of geminat into simple consonants: bella à bela.
The dropping of final consonants also plays a significant role: amat, valeat à ama, valea. Silence aspirates h: horti à orti. Dropping n before s: omnipotens à omnipotes. A prosthetic vowel appears before the combination "s + acc" at the beginning of a word: sponsae à ispose.
Morphology. Replacement of synthetic forms by analytical ones. For the verb, the use of paraphrases, especially with the verb habere: nihil habeo ad te scribere. For the name - replacement of cases with prepositional constructions: Saturnus cum discentibus à Saturnus cum discentes. Simplification of the c-declension (from 5 to 3x). Disappearance of the neuter gender: caelum, vinum à caelus, vinus. Adjectives develop descriptive forms to express the degree of comparison: plus dulce. Personal pronouns are regularly used and the pronoun 3 l.s. ille/illa.
Syntax. Tendency towards direct word order. The order begins to compensate for the loss of case forms. Accusativus cum inf/nominativus cum inf are replaced by adventitious clauses: scis enim quod dedi epulum. Impersonal forms of the verb are going out of use: supin, participium futuri, gerund, infinitives of the future tense.
Vocabulary. The composition of the vocabulary changes due to new formations and shifts in meanings. Emotional vocabulary is widespread, losing its stylistic coloring: auris à auricula. New words are formed with the help of prefixes and suffixes: dormitorium, prolongare (this can be recovered from Romance languages). Meanings change thanks to metaphor: testa "pot" à tête "head". Compound adverbs/prepositions are used: de post, de sub, de inter.
Folk Latin (also known as "Vulgar Latin" and Folk Latin; lat. Sermo vulgaris) is a colloquial variety of Latin spoken in Italy and later in other provinces of the Roman Empire. It is vernacular Latin (and not Classical Latin) that is the immediate ancestor of the Romance languages. On the other hand, not all regions of its distribution now have Romance languages. Folk Latin reached its greatest geographical distribution in the 3rd century AD. e., during the period of maximum expansion of the boundaries of the Roman Empire. From the end of the 3rd, and especially between the 5th and 15th centuries, during the Great Migration of Peoples, the linguistic boundaries of the Latin (Romance) area in the regions of the so-called Old Romania were significantly reduced. So, in North Africa, folk Latin was completely replaced by Arabic, and in Britain - by Germanic dialects (although folk Latin had a significant impact on local Celtic languages). The regions where the Latin language gradually disappeared (Pannonia, Illyria, Roman Britain, Roman Germany, Roman Africa) were called Romania Submersa.
Examples
The carriers of the so-called Balkan Latin were the first to break away from the common folk-Latin area of the Roman Empire, who continued to inhabit Roman Dacia (now Transylvania), which the Roman administration officially left in 271, and the Balkans. Thus began the process of becoming a modern Romanian.
Spoken Latin in Africa until the 12th century was preserved in the oasis of Kapsa (modern Gafsa, Tunisia), but was gradually replaced by Arabic.
Spreading
Spoken Latin was one of the Italic languages in the 8th century. BC e. (the date of the alleged founding of the city of Rome) had a rather narrow use as the mother tongue of the Indo-European tribe of the Latins in the Tiber River valley in the territory of Latium (modern Lazio). With the expansion of the power of the Roman state on the Apennine Peninsula, the Latin language is becoming more widespread as the main means of interethnic communication and trade (lingua franca) both between related Italian (Osca, Umbrian, Latin) and between unrelated (Mediterranean) peoples (Etruscans). ), who learn Latin orally and have a substrate effect on it. As the Roman Empire expanded, as a result of interethnic contacts and Romanization, the Latin language was assimilated by an increasing number of diverse peoples in an ever larger territory, which led to the emergence of regional differentiation of its oral variants, while the written and official language remained practically unchanged from I century AD and was still used in public affairs.